Chapter 1

Introduction

0. Introduction 
	
	The native language of western El Salvador, the subject of this book, is known in the linguistic literature as Pipil, although its speakers call it na:wat in the language itself and Nahuate in Spanish.  Here it is called Pipil because this usage is so strongly entrenched in the scientific literature that it could not easily be changed.  Nevertheless, it is to be hoped that Na:wat (Nahuate) may gain  more  general acceptance in honor of and in deference to its speakers.   This book, then, presents a description of this language.
	This chapter is concerned with the present and past geographical distribution of Pipil, its history to the extent that it is known its genetic classification, and its dialects. The following three chapters present a description of the language's structure: its phonology (Chapter 2), its lexical categories and morphology (Chapter 3), and its syntax (Chapter 4). Chapter 5 contains the Pipil-Spanish-English dictionary representing the two main dialects, Cuisnahuat (C) and Santo Domingo de Guzman (SD), with occasional forms from other dialects.  Chapter 6 is the Spanish-Pipil dictionary.  Chapter 7 contains folkloric texts accompanied by a morpheme-by-morpheme analysis and translation in Spanish and a more flowing English narrative translation.  Many of the examples cited in other chapters are taken from these texts, which are coded with a letter to identify the narrative involved and a number which refers to the line within the text. The appendices contain additional historical information. Appendix 1 compares Pipil in detail with other southern varieties of Nahua in order to determine precisely its relationship to them.  Appendix 2 solves the controversial question concerning the Nahua of central Guatemala, which has often been assumed to be Pipil but which turns out to be in origin post-Conquest and from central Mexico.
	The purpose of this book, then, is to present a basic reference work on Pipil, a sort of "handbook" of the language.
	The fieldwork, collection of data, and analysis upon which this work is based were done during several stays in Pipil territory in the years from 1970 to 1976.  In the summer of 1970 and again in 1972 I collected information on Pipil dialects from all the locations where I could determine that there were still speakers (cf. section 1.4).  I worked in Santo Domingo de Guzman during the summers of 1973 and 1976, and for several months in 1974.  Cuisnahuat data were obtained during visits in the summer of 1975 and in a longer stay in 1976.  The work was completed; it should be pointed out, before the recent upsurge of violence and political turmoil, and should therefore have no political consequences. Nevertheless, given the sensitivities on all sides of the conflict and the potential for misunderstanding, it seems wisest for the sake of all who worked with me to present no more specific information about speakers, but rather in its place to offer the deepest hope for improved conditions and an end to violence. 

	1.1. Social and geographical position.  Today Pipil is little used, spoken by only a few, elderly people in a small number of towns mainly in the departments of Sonsonate and Ahuachapan  of eastern El Salvador: Comazagua, Concepcion de Ataco, Cuisnahuat, Chiltiupan, Izalco, Jicalapa, Juayua, Nahuilingo, Nahuizalco, Santa Catarina Mazaguat, Santa Isabel Ishuatan, Santo Domingo de Guzman, Tacuba, and Teotepeque (see section 1.4. for details).  The exact number of speakers is unknown, since many are relectant to be identified as speakers. This is due to distrust conditioned by Pipil experience in recent history, not the least of which was the so-called "matanza" or massacre of Indians in 1932 coupled with the government decree that Indian languages could no longer legally be spoken. Thus only very rough estimates of the number of speakers are available. In most villages only two or three elderly individuals still speak the language. The greatest concentrations are in Cuisnahuat (C) and Santo Domingo de Guzman.  In any case, the language is quite moribund, with no fully fluent younger speakers. While census and other official reports sometimes place the number as high as 2,000, my own guess is that it is much lower, perhaps as low as 200. 
	Formerly, Pipil was spoken in a wide area including scattered locations from Guatemala to Panama (cf.  Stone 1949, Fowler 1981). It is now extinct everywhere except for these few places in El Salvador.
	
	1.2. Classification. Pipil belongs to a branch of languages that has been called variously Nahua, Aztec, Nahuatlan, Aztecan, etc., which is itself a subgroup of the Uto-Aztecan family (often called Yuto-Nahua in Latin American sources).  For more details, see Campbell and Langacker 1978, Canger 1980, Lastra de Suarez 1975, and Sullivan 1980. The least controversial classification of Uto-Aztecan has eight branches or subgroups:
		
UTO-AZTECAN
I. Numic (Plateau Shoshone)
	1. Mono (Monachi), Paviots
		2. Panamint, Shoshone 
		3. Kawaaisu, Ute
II. Tubatulabal (Kern River)
III. Takic (Southern California Soshone)
	1. Serrano, +Kitanemuk, +Vanyume, +Alliklik 
	2. +Fernandeno, +Gabrieleno, +Nicoleno
	3. Cahuilla, Luiseno, Cupeno, +Juaneno
IV. Hopi
V.  Piman
	1. Pima, Papago
	2. Northern Tepehuan, Southern Tepehuan
VI. Taracahitic
	1. Tarahumara
	2. Cahita, Varihio (Guarihio)
	3. Opata
VII. Cora-Huichol (Corachol)
	1. Cora
	2. Huichol
VIII. Nahua (Aztecan, Nahuatlan)
	1. +Pochutec
	2. Pipil
	3. Core Nahua (all other Nahua varieties)
			
Note: + = extinct.
	Many proposals exist for higher-order, more inclusive groupings, and there is now a near consensus that the family first split into two branches, Northern Uto-Aztecan (which includes groups I-IV here) and Southern Uto-Aztecan (groups V-VIII). More controversial proposals have bunched Takic, Numic, and Tubatulabal in a proposed Shoshonean group and have linked Piman and Taracahitic, and at times Cora-Huichol and Nahua also, in a group called Sonoran. Miller's (1984) recent classification is intermediate to these:
		
UTO-AZTECAN
1.  Numic
	a. Western Numic: Mono, Paviotso (or Northern Paiute) (Bannock)
	b. Central  Numic:  Panamint, Shoshoni, Comanche
	c. Southern Numic: Kawaiisu, Ute (Chemehuevi, Southern Paiute, Ute) 
2.  Tubatulabal
3.  Takic
	a. Serrano-Gabrielino
		(1) Serran: Serrano, Kitanemuk 
		(2) Gabrielino (Gabrielino, Fernandino)
	b.  Cupan
		(1) Cupeno, Cahuilla
		(2) Luiseno
4.  Hopi
5.  Southern Uto-Aztecan
	A.  Sonoran
		a. Tepiman: Upper Piman (Papago, Pima, Nevome), Lower Piman, Northern 			Tepehuan, Southern Tepehuan (Southern Tepehuan; Tepecano)
		b. Taracahitian
			(1) Tarahumaran: Tarahumara (Eastern Tarahumara, Western 					Tarahumara, Southern Tarahumara), Guarijío (Upland 					Guarijío, Lowland Guarajío)
			(2) Opatan: Opata, Eudeve
			(3) Cahita (Mayo, Yaqui)
		c.   Tubar
		d.   Corachol: Cora, Huichol
	B. Aztecan
		a. General Aztec: Pipil, Aztec (Classical Aztec, Tetelcingo, Zacapoaxtla, and 			others)
		b. Pochutec 

Names in parenthesis are dialects of the preceding language. (Miller1984:121.)
	
	1.2.1. "What's in a name?" Nahua and Pipil. The name "Nahua" is used here to refer to any variety, be it a dialect or independent language, of the Nahua subgroup. This term is purposefully nonspecific to avoid the confusion that other names used in the literature have produced. It is important to explain some of these terms in order to unravel some of this confusion.
	North American linguists tend to speak of the "Aztec" language. This, however, is unclear because the language is not a direct reflection of Aztec culture, since it was spoken contemporaneously also by non-Aztecs (e.g. the Tlaxcalans). Other names which have been used in reference to varieties of Nahua are:  Nahuatl, Nahuat, Nahuate (Naguate), Mejicano (Mexicano), Mejicano Corrupto (Corrupt Mexican), Pipil Nicarao, etc.  Pochutec of Oaxaca (now extinct, see Boas 1917) is the most divergent language of the subgroup. While the case is less clear, I believe that Central American Pipil should also be considered a distinct language, but more similar to other varieties than Pochutec is. All others are considered dialects of a single language, called here "Core Nahua". (For more details concerning Nahua dialectology, see Campbell and Langacker 1978, Canger 1978, 1980, 1983, Lastra de Suarez 1974; cf. also appendices 1 and 2.)
	Above all, it is important to clarify the term "Pipil".   For some scholars "Pipil" signifies only the Pipil language of Central America; this is its most common intended meaning in the scientific literature and it is the usage proposed here as the only clear and acceptable meaning for the term.  Nevertheless, frequently "Pipil" has been employed not only for Central American Pipil, but also for refering to Nahua dialects of southern  Veracruz, Tabasco, and Chiapas (southern Mexican states); cf., for example, Fowler 1981, 1984,  Garcia de Leon 1976,  Hasler 1958a, 1958b, 1961, 1976, Knab 1980, Law 1956,  Navarrete 1975:279, Reyes Garcia 1958, Swadesh 1954-1955, etc. A detailed analysis (see appendix 1) of the available data shows that at one level these three varieties, Central American Pipil, Chiapas Nahua, and dialects of Southern Veracruz and Tabasco, share certain traits which suggest a possible closer historical connection among them (Canger 1980, Lastra de Suarez 1974).  On the other hand, Central American Pipil is in several respects quite distinct from these and all other Nahua varieties.  At issue, then, is both the name and   the classification. To begin with, the differences are sufficient to require a distinct name in order to avoid confusion.  However, the question of classification is complicated by the need to interpret both the shared similarities and the differences. Those who emphasize the similarities classify Central American Pipil closer to these varieties, but its differences suggest a classification which reflects greater distance and divergence. Among the more marked differences, it is worth pointing out the following:
	
1)  Pipil has -t 'plural' where others have -h (or -ʔ which corresponds to h in other dialects); cf. section 3.1.4.
2)  In Pipil -tu-k is the 'perfect' or 'past participle' (cf. section 3.7.2.3), while in others –tuk / -tok is a progressive ending, sometimes used adjectivally. For example, in Pipil wa:k-tuk means "dry" ('adjective')  or "it has dried" ('perfect'), but in Pajapan, Veracruz corresponding wa:k-tok means "dry" ('adjective') but also "it is drying" ('progressive').
3)  Pipil has no absolutive suffix with nouns that end in -l and its occurrence with polysyllabic nouns ending with other consonants is very limited. These other varieties have the absolutive suffix in these contexts.
4) In Pipil the sequence kwaw generally did not become ko as it did in several of these other varieties.
5)  Pipil has a number of lexical and other sporadic differences, for example: nu:tsa "to speak" (corresponding forms mean "to call" in others),  nemi "to be" ("to live" in others), atime-t "louse" (atemi-t or atimi-t in  others),  etc. (cf. Appendix 1 for more details).
	
	While these differences are clearly significant, their historical weight is not clear in each case, since it is in principle possible that these varieties changed after Pipil split off (a possibility in (4), for example) or that Pipil innovated after its separation (possible in (5)). With such differences it is clear that the term "Pipil" should be used with caution. It is preferible to reserve its use solely for Central American Pipil in order to avoid confusion.
	
	1.2.2. Pipil and the classification of Nahua. With the argument that Central American Pipil must in some way be considered distinct from other Nahua varieties, the question is begged, just what is the position of Pipil within the Nahua subgroup and how does it relate to other dialects? In the classification proposed here, Nahua consists of three "branches" (independent languages): Pochutec, Pipil (of Central America), and Core Nahua (to which all other varieties belong, including the so-called "Classical" (alias Colonial) Nahuatl (CN) of the sixteenth century and the various extant dialects of Mexico). Other classifications which have been proposed generally coincide with this one in considering Pochutec as the most divergent member of the group, a separate language. Nevertheless, several of the proposals differ in that they group Pipil among the dialects of Core Nahua or as a subdivision of some other imagined Nahua dialect arrangement. These claims require some examination, although all have been superseded by Una Canger's studies. For that reason, detailed discussion of the dialect traits upon which classification has been based is reserved for later, for the presentation of Canger's case (see below). For proposals prior to Canger's, I present only the main claims with respect to the position of Pipil.
	Swadesh (1954-1955:179) held  Pochutec and Mexihca (i.e. Classical Nahuatl) to be distinct languages, where "todas las demas forman una red dialectal", specified in more detail as:

Los datos indican que el nahua se divide en tres partes representadas respectivamente por el pochuteco, el nahua clasico o mexihca, y no hay dialectos transicionales entre el pochuteco y los demas, ni tampoco entre el mexihca y los otros. Aparte de los dos tipos aislados, el resto forma una sola red dialectal con diferencias paaulatinas entre pueblo y pueblo desde la Huasteca hasta San Salvador [Pipil] y desde Veracruz hasta el Pacifico. (Fernandez de Miranda, Swadesh, and Weitlaner 1960:141)

	Unfortunately, Swadesh and his associates did not present the evidence upon which their proposal was based, but, as we shall see presently, the facts do no support such a classification.
	Juan Hasler in several publications (1958a, 1958b, 1961, 1975, 1976, 1977) invoked a quatripartite view of Nahua dialectology, with his Eastern branch containing both "Pipil" (which for him includes Central American Pipil and varieties from southern Veracruz) and Pochutec, among others. Of this "Pipil" he said:

Los subdialectos meridionales del nahua del este han recibido a veces el tratamiento de idioma  pipil.	Con esto no puedo estar de acuerdo: el pipil es un subdialecto – el mas interesante si se quiere – de nahua del este, y posiblemente el que de manera mas directa se conecte con el pre-nahua. (Hasler 1958a:338)

	Nevertheless, the traits presented by Hasler do not support his Eastern group nor his classification in general (cf. Canger 1980, 1983; see below).
	Yolanda Lastra de Suarez (1974) presented a different classification, which she called a "preliminary typology". She grouped Pipil with southern Mexican dialects under the label "Golfo" (Gulf), which includes: Acula, Los Tuztlas (sic), Mecayapan, Pajapan (Veracruz); Nahuazontla and Xalacapan (Puebla) Tuxtepec (Oaxaca); Soconusco, Oteapan, Cosoleacaque, Cupilco, Boquiapan, Jalupa; Soyalo (Chiapas); Acaguasastlan (sic, read Acasaguastlan, Guatemala); Nahuizalco, Izalco, Sonsonate, Cuzcatlan (El Salvador); San Pedro (Durango). Of Pipil she offers: Fonologicamente Centro America se agrupa con el Golfo, pero en lexico parece tener mucha influencia del Centro y al mismo tiempo otras palabras que le son caracteristicas. (Lastra de Suarez 1974:392)
Lastra's main criterion for this classification was the preterite formed in -k. However, this trait is of no diagnostic value for classification (Canger 1980, see below).
	Similar views have been presented by Garcia de Leon (1976:9), Luckenbach and Levy (1980), and Fowler (1981), based upon glotto-chronological counts. I return to these claims below.
	Una Canger's (1980, 1983) classification is by far the most accurate, most detailed, and best supported with linguistic evidence to date. It is (Canger 1980:16):

A Pochutec
B General Aztec
I CENTRAL
	a. La Huasteca b. North Puebla Valley of Mexico
		Morelos
		Tlaxcala
		Central Puebla
		Central Guerrero
II PERIPHERAL
	a. Western
		i. Jalisco, Colima, Durango
		ii Michoacan
		iii Almomoloa
		iv North Guerrero
b. Eastern
		i. Sierra de Puebla
		ii  East Puebla (Chilac)
		iii South Guerrero
		iv Isthmus
		v. Pipil

	Canger calls her classification "tentative" and "unsatisfactory because branching charts cannot be used to show the complex relationships which usually exist among dialects" (Canger 1980:16). In clarifying her Central vs. Peripheral division, which she considers "fundamental", Canger indicates that it is "founded basically on one isogloss: the presence versus the absence of the stem final vowel in the perfect of verbs" (Canger 1983:30). However, she does not believe this division to be old, no more that 500 years (Canger 1983:31). That is, the defining features of central dialects are not "due to common inheritance, but rather to late influence from one prestigious and dominating dialect; and they have had the function precisely of unifying the dialects" (Canger 1983:32). In short, "peripheral dialects were defined negatively simply by not having the features diagnostic for the Central dialects" (Canger 1983:28).
	I will examine the traits which Canger (and others before her) have presented as support for placing Pipil within her Eastern group (part of the larger Peripheral group). While she did not intend her classification to be understood as genetic, I will discuss the implications of her dialect traits for a genetic classification of Pipil, showing the complications for any proposed closer classification of Pipil with Mexican varieties of Nahua. Canger points out that much attention has been paid in previous classifications to the presence or absence of the suffix -ki 'preterite' and to the use or non-use of the prefix o:- in 'past' constructions, but she demonstrates that these two features are not useful for defining the dialects. For her, the loss or preservation of the stem-final vowel of verb roots in the 'preterite' (cf. section 2.2) is the most important criterion in the classification of all Nahua dialects. For example, from a proto form *ki:sa-ka "(he/she/it) left" the dialects end up with the following  possible forms:	 ki:s-ki, ki:s, ki:sa-k, with or without the 'past' suffix o:-, depending on the dialect). The dialects which lose the final vowel of verb roots in the 'preterite' are of the Central group; preservation of this vowel is the diagnostic criterion of Peripheral dialects, including Pipil in her view (Canger 1978:4-5). Nevertheless, Canger says that some peripheral dialects have recently lost or have begun to lose the final vowel in these forms due to the general tendency toward final-vowel loss in Nahua (Canger 1978:4). Specifically of Pipil, based on her reading of Schultze-Jena (1935), she says:

Schultze-Jena's description of Pipil (1935) gives the impression that vowel loss in verb forms has only recently begun to take place (Canger 1980:75). The pipil forms in ki are identical with those found in La Huasteca and with those which all Central dialects have had at an earlier stage. But a number of Pipil variants in -C-ki and -Vk and the many cases with the stem final vowel retained show that Pipil has gone through a development independent of that common to all the Central dialects (Canger 1980:76).

	However, with respect to Pipil, this criterion fails, or better said, the interpretation of Schultze-Jena's data has led Canger to an inadequate view of Central American Pipil. It must be granted that the nature of vowel-loss deserves study and that further clarification of Canger's interpretation would be useful. Nevertheless, vowel loss in these verb forms appears not to be a recent development, but rather a very old one. The most plausible explanation of the variation between forms without the final vowel (-C-ki]) and forms with it (-V-k) is that the vowel's presence, where it occurs in Pipil dialects, is due to recent analogical changes based on present-tense forms (which always contain the vowel). For example forms such as ni-k-pix-ki "I had it" ni-k-chix-ki "I saw it", ti-k-ihix-ki "you hated it", and ni-k-u:x "I shelled it" (from -piy-a, -chiy-a, -ihiy-a, and -u:y-a, respectively) show vowel loss to be old, given that the morphophonemic change of final and preconsonantal y to x is ancient (from Proto-Nahua times, cf. Campbell and Langacker 1978) and is no longer productive (cf. section 2.2). The explanation of a variant form such as ni-k-piya-k (SD) "I had it" instead of the more usual and older ni-k-pix-ki (C) is that the former is of recent analogical formation (occurring with much less frequency than the original forms without the stem-final vowel, probably based on the class of verbs which in pipil and almost all other varieties of Nahua does not lose the stem-final vowel in the preterite  (cf. section 2.2., 3.7.3) and by the vowel's presence in the 'present' tense forms. Actually, the class of verbs which loses the stem final vowel in Pipil is by far the most ample, with approximately twice the number of members as the classes which retain the vowel. Consequently, given that vowel loss is very old, Pipil cannot convincingly be considered closely connected with Canger's Eastern group (part of the larger Peripheral grouping) on the basis of this criterion alone. This conclusion is seen with clarity when Pipil verbs are compared with forms from Mecayapan, Veracruz  (often called  "Isthmus" Nahua, part of Canger's Eastern dialect group), which is incidentally the dialect many have considered most closely related to Central American Pipil. Compare the third person singular preterite forms; note that final -k has become -ʔ in Mecayapan (examples from Canger 1980:71):

	Mecayapan 			Pipil
	kochi-ʔ			kuch-ki	slept
	tegi-ʔ / teʔ			tek		cut
	pa: ʔ (CN pa:ka-k)		pa:ka-k		washed 
	migi-ʔ / miʔ		miki-k		died
	ko:wa-ʔ			kuh-ki		bought
	ti:si-ʔ				tis-ki		ground
	ki:sa-ʔ			ki:s-ki		left
	no:tsa-ʔ 	called		nu:ts-ki	spoke
	miso:ta-ʔ			m-isu:ta-k	vomited 
					(cf. CN o-ni-iso:tla-k "I vomited")
	pata:n / pata:ni-ʔ		pata:ni-k	flew
					(cf. pata:n-tuk "flown")

	In summary, with respect to -C-ki or -V-k, Pipil preserves a state very much like that found in Classical Nahuatl; i.e., in general Pipil has undergone vowel loss in the preterite (-C-ki) in the verb classes which permit it and in this respect Pipil is distinct from the Eastern dialects (of the Peripheral group) which do not permit this vowel loss. A sober assessment of this fact leaves Pipil distinct, but, unfortunately, does not demonstrate that there could not have been a closer connection between these two varieties. That is, if they had been closely related, Isthmus Nahua could still have undergone the analogical restoration of the stem-final vowel (if that is indeed what happened) after Pipil had separated. That is, to show that the two belong together one must demonstrate shared innovations. Since vowel loss in the 'preterite' is apparently not shared (which is Canger's principal classificatory trait), if a connection is to be demonstrated it will have to be based on other shared innovations. It is to Canger's other shared traits that I now turn.
	The other features which Canger presented for her Eastern dialects do not serve to prove that Pipil belongs genetically to the group, either. It should be recalled that she did not intend them to have a genetic interpretation, but if Pipil is to be placed historically, their weight for genetic classification needs to be assessed.
	First, Pipil and Isthmus Nahua share the plural morpheme of independent personal pronouns, -me-t (Pipil) / -me-h  (Isthmus), while others tend to have -tin or -n. Nevertheless, the suffix -me-h is found in various other, non-Eastern dialects, such as La Huasteca, which is considered Central (Canger 1978:13, Hasler 1961:459). For example, Guerrero dialects (Xalital, Copalillo, Zitala, Acatlan, and Xalatzala) have tahwameh "we" (Canger 1980:96). Thus, the following forms exist for "we":

	tehemet	Pipil
	tohomen	Jalupa, Tabasco
	tehwameh	Zaragoza, Veracruz
	tohwameh	Cosoleacaque
	tahameh	Jaltipan, Veracruz
	tehame:n	Mecayapan, Veracruz 
	(Wolgemuth 1980:192)
	tehame:h		(Garcia de Leon 1976:26)
	tehameh	Pajapan, Veracruz 
	tahamet	Acula, Veracruz
	tahan		Boquiapan, Tabasco
	tawa:n		Cupilco, Veracruz
	tehBan		Tuxtlas, Veracruz
	tahwameh	Zitlala, Guerrero
	te?wa:N	North Puebla
	tehwan		Ahuacatlan, Puebla
	tehwah		Tlaxcala
	tefa		Zoquitlan
	tehwa		Sierra de Puebla
	(Canger 1980:96-7, Garcia de Leon 1976:26).

	This list shows that there are dialects which are not of the Eastern group that have the -me-h / -me-t ending and that there are Eastern (Isthmus) dialects which lack it (e.g. Boquiapan, Cupilco, Tuxtlas, etc.). It is very possible that -me-h/-me-t was the original Proto-Nahua plural ending in pronouns, which would mean that it represents a retention in those dialects that have it, not a shared innovation. Therefore, these dialects could have retained the trait regardless of their actual classification by simply not having changed the prior existing form. In any case, its geographical distribution show that this feature is not diagnostic for the classification of Nahua dialects and has no direct relevance to the position of Pipil.
	Pipil, the Sierra de Puebla, and Isthmus Nahua also share the retention of initial e-, which changed to ye- in many other dialects, as in, for example, e:-t(l) "bean" instead of ye:-t(l). But certain other dialects also preserve e-, e.g. La Huasteca, Jalisco, etc., and even in Classical Nahuatl e varied with ye. The e- is retention of a Proto-Nhaua characteristic; the change of e- to ye- is a relatively recent innovation. Therefore, Pipil and others could share e- irrespectively of their classification (cf. Canger 1978:8).
	These three, Pipil, Sierra de Puebla, and Isthmus Nahua, also share another trait, the preservation of the root-final vowel in the words toto(:)nik "hot" and xoxo:wik "green"; cf. CN toto:nki and xoxo:wki (Canger 1978:8). This attribute is not diagnostic for the classification, either, since La Huasteca Nahua also has it and, moreover, because it represents a retention of the original form which could be shared without any historical connection after the split up of Proto-Nahua. The loss of the root-final vowel represents an innovation in the dialects which underwent it. In any case, it is also possible that the Pipil form tutu:nk-a:yu-t "fever" evidences the change.
	These three varieties share yet another trait; they have changed the *tl of Proto-Nahua to t (cf. Campbell and Langacker 1978), but this change is so natural that it very easily could have taken place independently, as is suggested by the fact that a number of other dialects also share this change (cf. Canger 1980:88-9).
	Canger also pointed out that these three (Pipil, Sierra de Puebla, and Isthmus Nahua) also tend to lose the absolutive suffix after -l (Canger 1978:13), but the circumstances of this loss vary in each of the three and also, the same tendency is found in certain  other dialects, e.g. in Tlaxcala Nahua (Canger 1978:13).
	In Pipil the absolutive has been lost completely with roots ending in -l, but also it tends to be lost in other environments. For example, one of its allomorphs, -ti, occurs after other consonants (not -l) but is limited for the most part to monosyllabic forms, save a few exceptions (see section 3.1.1). In Isthmus Nahua the absolutive allomorph that occurs after final -l (i.e. -li) has been lost only in polysyllabic nouns, while in Sierra de Puebla Nahua it was lost in this same environment and also in monosyllabic nouns with a long vowel. Had the loss of absolutive been historically shared, the only portion of it that one could assume to be genetic would be the suppression of the allomorph after root-final -l in polysyllabic forms – but not even this small portion of it is useful for genetic classification, given that Tlaxcala Nahua also shares that much of the loss.
	Canger also pointed out traits shared only be Pipil and Isthmus Nahua. These may be more important, although their significance for genetic classification is not easily determined. Among these she cites an Isthmus construction with nemi plus a main verb which results in a kind of progressive: nemi ni-takwa "I am eating". In Pipil this progressive construction is composed of a clear auxiliary verb, nemi, which means "to be" in other contexts. However, the constructions meaning and function in Isthmus Nahua varies with the local dialects. For example, García de León translates it as "go (about) doing" (Sp. andar haciendo) in Pajapan, Veracruz, where he describes the construction as a "frase verbal continuativa":
nemi mawiltia "anda jugango". El uso de esta frase sustituye en mucho al uso del sufijo continuativo -tok de los verbos. (García de León 1976:74)
	Here it is composed of a verb nemi "to walk, go" (andar) plus main verb (cf. CN nemi "to live", nehnemi "to go, walk"). On the other hand, Wolgemuth (1980:107) presents it as a true progressive construction, e.g. nemi ni-takwa "I am eating". In Pipil, one might expect a progressive construction from a verb meaning "to be", as is the case in many other languages of the world, e.g.  English "I am eating" or Spanish "estoy comiendo". Moreover, Isthmus Nahua has a progressive suffix, -tok, as do several other varieties of Nahua, which Pipil lacks. Therefore, while Pipil and Isthmus Nahua share a similarity in this case, it is possible that it is due to independent innovation of the progressive construction, just as was the case with English and Spanish, related languages which independently developed progressives from forms of the verb "to be". Other dialects also contain auxiliary constructions with nemi, but with it postposed, e.g. mo-laluhti-nemi "(he) goes (about) running" (anda corriendo) in Michoacan Nahua (Beller and Beller 1979:282), wikati-nemi "sings habitually" in La Huasteca Nahua (Sischo 1979:355), while Tetelcingo has an 'ambulative' construction, -ti-nemi (Brewer  1969:46), to which CN kwala:n-ti-nemi "to go (around) getting angry" (andar enojandose) may be compared. It is also possible, however, given the greater similarity in form and meaning, that Pipil and Isthmus Nahua share this trait due to some common history; at this time, it is simply unclear.
	Canger's second feature shared by Pipil and Isthmus Nahua is -pal 'possession', e.g. i-pal "his/hers/its", no-pal / nu-pal "mine", etc. Other dialects have a cognate relational noun -pal, but generally with the basic meaning of "by, with, near, by means of, for". However, these also have contexts with a possessive sense, e.g. CN te:-pal "someone's" (ajeno). At the same time, Pipil has contexts with the meaning "by, for", e.g. pal "by, for, in order to" (conjunction),"of, from, by" (possessive, directional). It is possible that Pipil and Isthmus Nahua have innovated together the basic sense of possession, but this is by no means clear.
	Finally, Canger (1978:14) presented certain lexical items shared by Pipil and Isthmus Nahua, but these are not shared exclusively by these two varieties (nor by these plus Sierra de Puebla Nahua). For example, koyame-t / kuyame-t "pig" is found in Pipil, Isthmus Nahua, Michoacan, and Quetzalapa; others tend to have pitso-t(l). The form teksis-t(l)i "egg" is found in Pipil, Isthmus, and La Huasteca; others have totol-te-t(l), tle-tl, tli-tl, or tlexuch-tli.
	In sum, these similarities may suggest a possible closer genetic connection between Pipil and Isthmus Nahua (and perhaps these two with the Sierra de Puebla), but their genetic significance is inconclusive and Pipil's striking differences (cited above) should be kept in mind.
	
	1.2.2.1. Glottochronology. Several calculations of Nahua glottochronology have been presented which involve Pipil and upon which claims about Nahua classification have been based, e.g. Swadesh 1954-1955, 1963, 1967, Kaufman 1974, García de León 1976, Luckenbach and Levy 1980, and Fowler 1981. While glottochronology is at best highly controversial, nevertheless proposals for Pipil based on these calculations should be discussed.  To begin with, however, it should be mentioned that glottochronology has been largely discredited, its basic assumptions have been challenged, and its results frequently prove erroneous (cf. Campbell 1977:62-5).
	García de León has placed Pipil close to Veracruz and Tabascan varieties based on his counts. He says:
		
En cuanto a las relaciones internas del nahua del Golfo lo mas significativo es el hecho de que la distancia interna mayor es de 9 siglos minimos (between Cosoleacaque and Jalupa); en tanto que el pipil salvadoreno solo difiere 6 siglos de Tuxtlas, Jaltipan, Pajapan, Boquiapan y Jalupa, lo cual indica que el primero es producto de un movimiento reciente que se efectuo en tiempos historicos (solo 2 siglos antes de la Conquista); o bien, que habiendose movido desde antes, fue hasta 6 siglos que perdio el contacto con la costa del Golfo.  No seria nada aventurado suponer que antes del 1300 dC existia una continuidad de grupos nahuas desde Veracruz y Tabasco, hasta Guatemala y El Salvador; pasando por los Altos de Chiapas (dialecto del nahua del que quedaban hasta hace poco hablantes en Soyalo y Bochil) y por la costa del Soconusco (Huehuetan y otros). Probabalemente, la expansion de los senorios quiches y cakchiqueles de Guatemala favorecio la separacion que explicaria los 6 siglos de divergencia entre el nahua del Golfo y el salvadoreno.
(Garcia de Leon 1976:41)

	García de León presented the Swadesh list of 100 words in various Gulf dialects, but did not include the Pipil words with which he compared them to arrive at his dates.  He calculated that Pipil shares 84% with the Nahua of Los Tuxtlas, Pajapan, Jaltipan (Veracruz), and Boquiapan (Tabasco), a separation of 5.8 minimum centuries. His Gulf Nahua varied from 8 to 13 centuries with respect to "Mexihca" (Classical Nahuatl) and to other Nahua dialects, which compares well with Kaufman's figure of 11 minimum centuries for General Nahua, i.e. Nahua minus Pochutec (Kaufman 1974:73).
	Luckenbach and Levy (1980), basing their calculations on 25 dialects, follow Swadesh (1954-1955) in believing that the interdialectal relationships are "properly thought of as 'chains' or 'nets', where each dialect has its closest affinities with its immediate neighbor" (p.456). They support the traditional three-way split in Nahua of "Nahuatl, Nahual, and Nahuat (Pipil), and a variant isolate from Pochutla" (p.456).  They calculate the earliest separations  for  Pochutla (= Pochutec) and Xochitlahuaca, Guerrero from the remainder of Nahua at 543 A.D., with their Nahuat (Pipil) node splitting off at 801 A.D. and with "a Nahuat-Nahuatl divergence ...calculated at A.D. 1072, and younger intradialecti_ cal (sic) nodes ... found for Nahuat (A.D. 1257), Nahual (A.D. 1442), and Nahuatl (A.D. 1304 and 1511)" (p.457).
	Fowler's (1981) calculations correspond to these in several ways. He placed the first split, that of Pochutec from other Nahua, at 15 centuries ago, ca. 500 A.D.. He equated the "first Pipil migrations out of central Mexico into the lowlands of Veracruz and Central America" (p.539-43) with a group he called "Nahuat" (a t-dialect), which includes Zacapoaxtla, Chicontepec, Tatela, Mecayapan, and El Salvador. He placed this Nahuat migration at ca.801 and put the beginnings of its internal divergence at ca. 965 A.D. This matches Kaufman's (1974) date of 900 to 1,000 for the Pipil migrations. Specifically, Fowler (1981:536) presents the following years of separation:

			1142 Salvador and Classical Nahuatl
			1097 Salvador and North Puebla
			942 Salvador and Milpa Alta 
			1312 Salvador and Mecayapan 
			1424 Salvador and Pochutec 
			993 Salvador and Zacapoaxtla 
			555 Salvador and Las Tuxtlas 
			1044 Salvador and Tatela
			1044 Salvador and Chicontepec
	
	Even if these glottochronological dates could be accepted with confidence, they would still present difficulties of interpretation. For example, given García de León's 7 centuries of internal variation among his Gulf dialects (e.g. between Mecayapan and Jalupa), one must ask how Salvadoran Pipil's separation could be shorter (only 6 centuries when compared with certain of these dialects; Garcia de Leon 1976:41). Ethnohistorical sources seem to indicate longer separation, but they, too, are difficult to interpret unambiguously (see below). In any event, successful classification cannot be based on glottochronology.
	The main question is whether the similarities shared by Pipil and other Nahua varieties (especially Isthmus (Gulf) and Sierra de Puebla) indicate a closer genetic relationship, or, whether Pipil's marked differences mean that it is to be considered a distinct variety with no closer connection to these other dialects. Given the untrustworthy nature of Nahua dialectology and the unclear status of the shared traits, it is possible that the question may have no satisfactory answer. Nevertheless, based on standard criteria for classification, I believe that Pipil is a distinct branch. The similarities are either retentions of Proto-Nahua features (which dialects may share by virtue of not having changed, regardless of possible closer connections) or are parallel, independent innovations (changes that easily take place independently). On the other hand, Pipil's differences are not so easily explained away. To repeat just one example, Pipil preserves original –t 'plural', which has changed to -h (or corresponding -ʔ) in all others except Pochutec. This means that these others share an innovation which argues that they were still unified when Pipil split off, after which they changed to -h (-ʔ) and subsequently broke up into the extant variants. The only alternative historical explanation that is at all plausible is the possibility that Pipil and certain others were closer relatives, splitting off as a single branch, with Pipil subsequently withdrawing while its remaining close relatives underwent the -t to -h change under influence from other dialects which had formerly so changed. While this is not impossible, one would need to be able to show that Pipil and its assumed closer relatives shared certain innovations before the break up. The similarities are not compelling in this regard. Moreover, there ought to be evidence of the assumed later diffusion of the -t to -h change in the others, but such evidence is unknown. 
	Thus, while it is not impossible that Pipil bears some closer connection to dialects of Veracruz, Tabasco, or elsewhere, the evidence suggests rather its long independence. If is best considered an independent branch of Nahua, not a member of Core Nahua, but having split off from the rest of the family after Pochutec was first separated.

3. Ethnohistory.   Having considered the genetic position of Pipil, I now turn to its history.  There are historical traditions concerning the arrival of the Pipils to Central America.  While they provide important information, their interpretation is not without complications.  The accounts are registered in two main sources, Torquemada (1615/1969/) and Oviedo (1945/1557/), and in several minor references, e.g. Ixtlilxochitl (1952/1600-1611/), Clavijero (1974/ca.1775/), and Fuentes y Guzmán (1932-1933/1695/).  These have been interpreted by Stoll (1884/1958/), Lehmann (1920), Thompson (1948), Chapman (1960), Jiménez Moreno (1959, 1966), León Portilla (1972), Campbell (1978) and Fowler (1981, 1983). I begin this survey by citing the primary accounts, which report the oral traditions of the Nicarao.  Torquemada tells it this way:

Según se platica, entre los naturales de esta Tierra, maiormente los viejos, dicen, que los Indios de Nicaragua, y los de Nicoya (que por otro Nombre, se dicen Mangnes (Mangues) antiguamente tuvieron su Habitacion en el Despoblado de Xoconochco (Soconusco), que es en la Governacion de Mexico. Los de Nicoya, decienden de los Chololtecas. Moraran acia la Sierra, la Tierra adentro; y los Nicaraguas, que son de la de Anahuac, Mexicanos, habitaban acia la Costa del Mar del Sur. La vna, y la otra era mui gran multitud de Gente; dicen que avra siete, u ocho edades o vidas de Viejos, y estos que vivian larga vida, hasta venir a ser mui Ancianos, que vivian tanto, que de viejos los sacaban al Sol.  En aquel tiempo vino sobre ellos vn grande Exercito de Gente, se decian, Olmecas. Estos dicen que vinieron de ácia Mexico.  y que antiguamente avian sido Capitales Enemigos de aquellos, que estaban poblados, en el Despoblado, que aora  es  entre Xoconochco (Soconusco), y Tequantepec (Tehuantepec). Estos Olmecas, dieron Guerra, vencieron, y sujetaron a los Naturales, y pusieronles grandes Tributos, ...
	...    demandaron  Consejo á sus Alfaquies, que les dixesen, qué debian hacer, que yá no podian sufrir tan Tiranos Tributos  ...  dixeron:  Que se apericibiesen para que todos en vn dia, lo mas secreto, que pudiesen, levantasen sus Mugeres, y Niños, y sus Haciendas, y se fuesen adelante, y dexasen aquella Tierra  ...  salieron de aquella Tierra, que antes avian morado, con grande contentamiento, y gusto.
	Despues, que començaron á caminar, á los veinte dias se les murió vno de los dos Alfaquies Principales, que diximos. Pasaron por la Tierra de Guauhtemallan (Guatemala), y anduvieron cerca de cien Leguas adelante. Allegaron a vna Provincia, que los Españoles llaman la Cholulteca, ó Choroteca, y alli se les murió el otro Alfaque.  Antes que muriese, les dixo ... a los de Nicoya, que iban en la delantera: Vosotros sois malos, porque verná (vendra) tiempo, que serviereis á vnos Hombres Blancos Barbudos, ... y os tratarán mal, y peor, que los Olmecas.
	Tambien dixo á los Olmecas: Vosotros ireis, y poblareis cerca de la Mar, que es la de el Sur, ácia el Occidente, que aora llaman el Golfo de San Lucar, y alli se hace vn buen Puerto, cerca de vna Isla, que la llaman Chira, y fue poblada de Gente quasi desnuda, y son Olleros, y sirvense de ellos, los de Nicoya ...
	A los de Nicaragua dixo el Alfaqui: Vosotros poblareis cerca de vna Mar dulce, que tiene á vista, vna Isla, en la qual ai dos Sierras altas redondas; y tambien que de toda aquella Tierra se avia de enseñorear, y los tratarian como a los de Nicoya.
	Esta Generacion vino por la Costa del Mar del Sur, y pasaron por Tierra de Quauhtemallan (Guatemala), entre los Naturales de aquella Tierra. Estos adonde veían algun buen Asiento, para poblar, poblaban, y de esta Generacion, son los que en la Nacion de Quauhtemallan, llaman Pipiles, como son los Pueblos, que llaman los Ecalcos (Izalco), que es la maior, y mejor Huerta, y mas abundante, y rica de Cacao, y Algodon, que ai en toda la Nueva-España, aunque entre dentro, toda la Governacion de Guauhtemallan. El Pueblo de Mictlan (Mitla), y el de Yzcuintlan (Escuintla), y otros algunos, dexaron poblados aquellos Indios, que pasaron adelante. 
	Tambien se dice, que de esta Generacion de Indios, fueron algunos de ellos atravesando, y aportaron á la Mar del Norte, y cerca del Desaguadero, está vn Pueblo de ellos, y hablan en Lenga (sic) Mexicana, no tan corrupta, como estotra de los Pipiles    ...    (Torquemada 1969/1615/.1:331-3).

	Oviedo (1557/1945/), who published his own observations and reports from Fray Francisco de Bobadilla, provided the following:

No somos naturales de aquesta tierra, é há mucho tiempo que nuestros predeçessores vienieron (sic) á ella, é no se nos acuerda que tanto há, porque no fué en nuestro tiempo   ...   La tierra, de donde vinieron nuestros progenitores, se diçe Ticomega é Maguatega, y es hácia donde se pone el sol: viniéronse porque en aquella tierra tenían amos, a quien servian, é los trataban mal ...  (Cited by Lehmann 1920:1004.)

	Ixtlilxochitl (1695/1952/) also spoke of these migrations, relating them to the destruction of the Toltec kingdom in 959 A.D. and Xolotl's entrance.

...  y los  pocos  tultecas que habían escapado de su destrucción, los dejó vivir en los puestos y lugares en donde estaban reformados y poblados cada uno con su familia, que fué en Chapoltepec, Colhuacan, Tlatzalante-pexoxoma, Totolapan, Quauhquecholan, y hasta las costas del mar del Norte en Tozapan, Tochpan, Tziuhcoac y Xicotepec, y lo mismo en Chololan, aunque algunos de ellos no pasaron sino hasta la tierra de Nicaragua á donde fueron á poblar, y á otras tierras remotas, en donde no llegó con tanta fuerza la seca y calamidad referida (Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl 1952.2:367).

	Interpretations of these accounts have been varied and at times quite controversial.  For example, Squier (1852) took the palm tree in the Mexican representation of Aztlan, the legendary northern homeland of the Aztecs, to mean that Nahua speakers must have originated in the south, migrating from Nicaragua and El Salvador to central Mexico (cf. Stoll 1958/1884/: 7-8).  Today all hold Squier's view to be quite mistaken, agreeing that the Nahua speakers come into Mesoamerica from the north, with   subsequent migrations to Central America from central Mexico.
	Most interpretations attempt to analyze Torquemada and Oviedo. According to Torquemada (just cited), the Nicarao left Soconusco (the Pacific Coast of Chiapas) "seven or eight ages or lives of an old man" before. This "age of an old man" has generally been interpreted as the period called in Nahuatl huehuetiliztli, which is two 52-year cycles of the Mesoamerican calendar, or 104 years.  Consequently, Jimenez Moreno (1966:67) and most other scholars have taken this to mean that the Pipil migrations to Central America took place around 728 to 832 years before its telling in 1580, or approximately 800 A.D. Lehmann (1920:1005), in contrast, held a different opinion:

Es ist sehr Wahrscheinlich, dass Torquemada diesen Bericht, der offenbar mehrere Wandersagen in eine verschmilzt, von Fray Toribio Motolinia übernommen hat  ...  Behält man das im Auge, so bezieht sich die Zeitangabe über die Abwanderung der Nicarao aus Mexiko wohl nicht auf die Zeit Torquemada's, sondern auf diejenige Motolinia's (um 1526). Zieht man davon die "7 - 8 Greisenalter" (etwa = huehuetiliztli mexikanisch = 104 Jahre?) niedrig gerechnet zu 7 X 80 = 560 oder 640 Jahren ab, so kommt man auf etwa 966 oder 886 n. Chr.; nimmt man an, dass Torquemada von seiner Zeit (etwas um 1600) rückwärts gerechnet hat, so kommt man auf 1040 oder 960 n. Chr.  Die Einwanderung der Nicarao würde also in den Zeitraum von 886 - 1040 n. Chr. anzusetzen sein, d.h. etwa in das 10. nachchristliche Jahrhundert.  Da aber die Nicarao-Sprache weniger altertümlich ist als das Pipil von Salvador, so muss die Abwanderung der Izalcos eine beträchtliche Zeit früher erfolgt sein, mindestens um 300 n. Chr.  ...  Die Nicarao jedoch direkt mit den alten Pipil Salvadors auf eine Stufe zu stellen, wie es Torquemada tut, ist sprachlich nicht gerechtfertigt (Lehmann 1920:1005).

	Lehmann, continuing his criticism of Torquemada, identified Oviedo's Ticomega and Maguatega, from whence the Nicarao came, with a Tecuman in Morelos and a Miahuatlan in Puebla, sites near Cholula, saying:

	...  Nicarao-Vorfahren von dort etwa im oder seit dem 10. Jhdt. n. Chr. auswanderten.  Wenn Torquemada den Schauplatz der Völkerwegung nicht nach Cholula und Umgebung verlegt, sondern nach Soconusco, so hängt das offenbar damit zusammen, dass er die Wandersage der Nicarao mit der schon früher erfolgten der Pipil  (Izalcos) und Chiapaneken verschmilzt (Lehmann 1920:1006).

	It is not clear why Lehmann insisted that the Nicarao are distinct from and later in their arrival to Central America than the Pipils. Indeed, Lehmann gives no indications concerning the sources or contents of the other legends supposedly fused by Torquemada, and he forgot that Torquemada spoke of their arrival in Soconusco from Anahuac, identified with the Valley of Cholula (cf. Chapman 1960).  Thus, Torquemada was not in fact guilty, as Lehmann's claimed, of placing the scene erroneously in Soconusco instead of near Cholula.  Nor did Lehmann present any substantial linguistic evidence to support this view.   In fact, his belief that Pipil is older seems rather to stem from a dependence on the erroneous classification of Nahua dialects into the so-called t-, tl- and l-dialects, coupled with his conviction that the t-dialects, of which Pipil is a representative, are older than tl-dialects:

	Aus dieser Eigentümlichkeit darf man wohl den Schluss ziehen, dass die tl-losen Dialekte sich vom Toltekischen ableiten, das ja eben ein vom Aztekischen (Mexikanischen) "etwas" abweichendes Idiom, ein Nahuat, war. Mithin müssen die Nahuatl-Pipil Dialekte in ihrem Ursprung älter sein als die schon altertümlichen Hymnen Sahagun's, weil das Toltekische dem Aztekischen spracahlich, kulturhistorisch und archäologisch vorhergeht.  Da das Izalco von Salvador nach meinen Aufnahmen vollere grammatische Formen bewahrt als das Mexikanisch-Aztekische, so folgt daraus, dass das erste Altaztekische der Hymnen Sahagun's, älter als das Pipil Guatemalas (Lehmann 1920:990).

	Lehmann's equation of t-dialects with the Toltecs and hence Pipil (a t-dialect) migrations with the Toltec dispersion has been important, not because it is necessarily accurate, but because it has been influential.  For example, Luckenbach and Levy (1980) and Fowler (1981) present such nearly identical conclusions about multiple migrations (with Pipil and Nicarao separated), Toltec connections, proposed dates, and the importance of t-dialects (as opposed particularly to tl-dialects), that it is difficult to believe their conclusions were not strongly influenced by Lehmann's opinions.
	Notwithstanding Lehmann's influence on later studies, his conclusions seem also conditioned by his possible reading of earlier sources.  For example, Ixtlilxochitl (cited above) claimed that the Toltec diasporas resulted in migrations to Nicaragua – Nicarao (and Pipil) being t-dialects.  Clavijero could also be the source:

Sabemos que los Toltecas y los Cicimecas (Chichimecas), los Cicimecas (sic) y los Acolhuis se comunicaban en común entre sí desde el principio, y se entendían recíprocamente sin intérpretes.  El encontrarse la lengua mexicana difundida hasta Nicaragua no puede atribuirse a otra cosa sino a la dispersion de los Toltecas, que la hablaban, porque no se sabe que los Nahuatlacos hayan entrado más allá de Chiapan (Clavaijero 2:153, cited by Stoll 1958/1884/:29-30).

	In spite of Lehmann's influence, most modern investigators have accepted Torquemada's account as accurate, and joining it with Oviedo's, they have proposed a reasonable picture of Pipil ethnohistory. According to their reconstructions (cf. particularly Jimenez Moreno 1966:63-7), the Pipils left the area of Cholula, Puebla (specifically Ticomega and Maguatega) in order to escape the tyranny of the historical Olmecs.  They came to southern Veracruz, but shortly after were displaced again, arriving in Xolotlan (the Soconusco Coast of Chiapas).  Later, once again to escape the historical Olmec opression, they left Soconusco, passing through several places, leaving colonies in Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and even in Costa Rica and Panama. Their departure is dated at around 800 A.D., based on the "7 o 8 edades de viejo" of Torquemada's account.
	As mentioned, in contrast to this view, Fowler (1981) has taken a position in sympathy with Lehmann's. He sees "Pipil" migrations in successive steps or waves from ca. 800 A.D. to ca. 1250 or 1300 A.D. from central Mexico to the southern Gulf region to various areas of Central America.  After an extensive review of ethnohistory, archaeology, and linguistics (including place names), he concludes for El Salvador, "probably for at least five centuries prior to (the Conquest), almost all of this (western and central) portion of El Salvador west and south of the Lempa River was occupied by the Pipil" (Fowler 1981:498).  He also believes in a "total or partial control of this (Usulután coastal lowland) region by the Nonualco Pipil in the Late Postclassic as a strong possibility" (Fowler 1981:507).  He equates these Nonualco with a later migration, connected with the Nicarao and assumed to be posterior to the Pipil. In his conclusions, based in large part on his glottochronological study (see appendix 1), he placed the "first wave of Pipil-Nicarao migrations out of central Mexico into the Veracruz coastal lowlands and via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to Central America sometime around A.D. 700 to 900" (Fowler 1981:542). "Later Nahuat separations between approximately A.D. 900 and 1350  ...  were probably directly or indirectly related to the expansion of the Toltec empire and its subsequent demise  ...  An important Toltec-influenced Pipil group, the Nonoalca, pushed into El Salvador at this time, displacing many of the earlier Pipil inhabitants of the region. The movement of the Nicarao into Nicaragua sometime after A.D. 1200 appears to be correlated with these events."(Fowler 1981:543-5)
	While this opinion merits careful consideration, the evidence for multiple migrations (with the Nonoalco connected with the Nicarao arriving later) is at present not convincing.  The greatest reservations are raised by the fact that it is based so heavily on glottochronology, with no direct linguistic or ethnohistorical evidence to support it.  In general, not only are the glottochronological dates contested, but also it is not clear whether the ethnohistorical dates are to be interpreted as dealing with the assumed original migration from the Cholula area or with later movements out of Soconusco toward Central America.  However, if in the end we could establish an accurate correlation of these dates with the conquest of Cholula by the historical Olmecs and the departure of the Pipils from there at about 800 A.D., then perhaps we would be in a better position to explain the nature of the postulated relationship shared by Pipil, Isthmus (Gulf), and Sierra de Puebla Nahua.  Given the consensus that the Pipil left central Mexico and migrated first to the southern Gulf region, it is to be expected that the Pipil language would share some linguistic traits with varieties from that area.  The question remains, however, about how the differences are to be understood and about how long Pipil has been separated from whatever its nearest neighbors or relatives may be (see appendix 1).

1.4. Pipil dialectology. Having considered Pipil's ethnohistory and its position relative to other varieties of Nahua, I now turn to an inspection of Pipil's own regional variation. My original intent in studying Pipil dialects was to determine where the language is still spoken and to obtain a general characterization of local dialect variation.  The goal was not to provide an exhaustive account of minor regional differences.  The dialect features presented here, then, give a good idea of major differences among local dialects, but it does not provide a comprehensive view of variation within each location. These dialect traits are presented in broad phonetic representation, not really phonemic, but employing the Pipil practical alphabet to the extent that it is possible (see section 2.1).
	(1) In Chiltiupan ts tends to change to s, e.g. saput "Zapote" (from tsaput; susukul "water jug (cántaro)" (from tsutsukul), etc.
	(2) In Concepcion de Ataco the vowels i and u have been lost between stops and semivowels, e.g. kwat "snake" (from ku(:)wat), kwa "to buy" (from  kuwa), maltyá "to bathe" (from m-a(:)lti(y)a; the y is inserted by rule, cf. 2.2).  It should also be noticed that the lost vowel would ordinarily bear stress when in penultimate position and consequently stress is shifted to the final vowel.
	(3) Originally the final and preconsonantal -l of Pipil (and probably of Proto-Nahua as well) was devoiced ([l]), but today there is considerable variation between voiced and voiceless pronunciation in these position and even in other positions in certain dialects. In Cuisnahuat the voiced and voiceless counterparts vary rather freely in final position. Final -l is always voiceless in Jicalapa.  In Teotepeque, the voiceless l (l) has been generalized to all positions; that is, l has changed totally to l everywhere, e.g. pelu "dog", tihlan "chicken", tekulut "owl", kumal "griddle", chiltik "red", maltiya "to bathe", kal "house", etc.
	In Jicalapa, not only is final -l devoiced, but l in all positions is palatalized, ly, prepalatalized finally, (-yl).  Some exampales are:  pelyu "dog", tihlyan "chicken", tekulyut "owl", chakalyin "shrimp", elyut "ear of corn", ulyut "corncob", kumayl "griddle", taxkayl "tortilla", tunayl "sun", lyamat "old woman", kayl "house", etc.
	(4) In Teotepeque x (/š/) has changed to /ṣ̣̣̣́/, a retroflexed fricative, and now is in free variation with rr (/r̃/).  I believe the later change to rr is due to Spanish influence.  There is sociolinguistically conditioned variation in local Spanish between r̃ and ś, where at least in nearby Guatemala the ś variant is stigmatized.  I believe that the negative value placed on this variant in Spanish has contributed to the Teotepeque change to r, a change in the direction of the prestige variant in Spanish, the dominant language in this setting.  Some examples are:  ṣ̣̣̣́uchit / r̃uchit "flower", ṣ̣̣̣́ułet / r̃ulet "old man", teṣ̣̣̣́kan "tick", ṣ̣̣̣́ukut "hogplum", aṣ̣̣̣́an "now".
	(5) Teotepeque and Comasaguya have a before y in monosyllabic roots where others dialects have e, e.g. -may "hand", -kway "skirt".
	(6) Pipil k has several variants in the different dialects, but in every case the underlying segment remains k.  In Cuisnahuat k is voiced and sometimes fricativized ([ɣ]) between two vowels when the first is long or if both are a's.  Occasionally it is voiced initially in certain words, particulary frequent with k(i)- 'third person sg. pronominal prefix.  In Santo Domingo de Guzmán k is voiced g initially, intervocalically, and after n.  In Tacuba, it is voiced between vowels.  In the other dialects k is generally maintained without change.
	In all dialects, final n is velar ([ŋ]) and the stress falls on the penultimate syllable except for certain Spanish loans, occasionally the suffix -tsin (cf. section 3.1.3.8), and those words in Ataco which lost penultimate i or u between stops and semivowels (see above).
	Vowel length is not represented in the list of dialect forms that follows due to lack of reliable information except for Cuisnahuat and Santo Domingo de Guzmán, where it was investigated systematically. It is to be supposed, however, that vowel length in the other dialects, where it still exists, will be nearly the same as in these two dialects.
The following word lists exemplify the changes and variation in the individual dialects. The abbreviations are:

	At		Ataco (Concepción de)
	Tac		Tacuba
	Maz		Santa Catarina Mazaguat
	SD		Santo Domingo de Guzmán
	Nah		Nahuizalco
	Iz		Izalco
	Teo		Teotepeque
	Jic		Jicalapa
	Com		Comazagua
	Chil		Chiltiupan
	C		Cuisnahuat

	It should be noted that the gaps in the lists, i.e. missing words, are because informants either did not know them or could not remember when questioned. The plants and animals whose English names are relatively unfamiliar are given with their Spanish names as well.  Many of these are described in the dictionary.
		
		cat		dog	pig		chicken	opossum	deer
At		mistun   	pelu	kuyamet  	tihlan		takwasin	masat
Tac		mistun  	pelu	kuyamet  	tihlan		takwatsin	masat
Maz		mistun   	pelu	kuyamet  	tihlan		takwatsin	masat
SD		mistun   	pe:lu  	guyamet  	tihlan		takwatsin	masa:t
Nah		mistun   	pelu	kuyamet  	tihlan		takwatsin	masat
Iz		mistun   	pelu	kuyamet  	tihlan		takwatsin	masat
Teo		mistun   	pelu	kuyamet  	tihlan		takwatsin	masat
Jic		mistun   	pelyu 	kuyamet  	tihlyan  	takwatsin   	masat
Com		mistun   	pelu	kuyamet  	tihlan		takwatsin	masat
Chil  		mistun   	pelu	kuyamet  	tihlan		takwa(t)sin 	masat
C		mistun   	pe:lu  	kuyamet  	tihlan		takwatsin	masa:t

	rabbit		mouse 		bird		egg		owl
At	tuchti   	kimichin	tutut		teksis(ti) 	tekulut
Tac	tuchti		kimichin			teksisti   
Maz			kimichin  	tutut		teksisti
SD	tuchtsin 	gimichin  	tu:tut		teksisti   	tegulut
Nah	tuchti		kimichin 	wilut		teksis     	tekulut
Iz			kimichin  	tutut		teksisti   
Teo			kimichin					tekulut
Jic			kimichin			teksis     	tekulyut
Com	tuchti		kimichin  	wilut		teksis     
Chil			kimichin  	wilut	   	tekulut
C	tuchti		kimichin  	wi:lutsin  	teksisti   	tekulut

	bat		iguana		snake		crab            
At					kwat		tekwisi
Tac			kuke		kwat		teksisi
Maz			kuke		kuwat		axalin
SD	tsina:gan	gu:ge		gu:wat  	tekwisi
Nah			kuke/gexpo	kuwat		tekwisi
Iz	tsinakan			kwat		tekwisi
Teo			kukexpal	kuwat		tikwisi
Jic	tsinaka		kukexpayl    	kuwat   	tikwisi/tekwkisi
Com					kuwat		tekwisi
Chil							tekwisi
C	tsina:gan  	ku:getspal  	ku:wat		tekwisi

							honey,
	shrimp		fish		worm		sweet(s)	ant	louse
At							nekti		         
Tac	chagalin	michin  	kwilin  	nekti    		tsigat  	atimet
Maz	chakalin	michin						tsikat
SD	chagalin	michin  	kwilin  	nekti    		tsi:gat 	atimet
Nah	chakalin	michin  	kwilin					atimet
Iz			michin  	kwilin				tsikat    
Teo	chakalin	michin  	kwilin  	nekti    		sikat
Jic	chakalyin   	michin  	kwilin  	nekti	 
Com	chakalin	michin  	kwilin  	nekti
Chil  	chakalin	michin  	kwilin
C	chagalin	michin  	kwilin  	nekti    		tsi:ɣat	atimet

									tree,
	tick		flea		leaf		flower		wood		ceiba 
At	texkan						xuchit		kwawit
Tac	teskan		tekpin		-iswa-w 	xuchit		kwawit
Maz			tekpin		iswat		xuchit		kwawit 	puchut
SD	texkan		tekpin		iswat		xu:chut		kwawit 	pu:chut
Nah			tekpin		iswat		xuchit		kwawit
Iz	texkan		tekpin		iswat		xuchit		kwawit
Teo	teśkan				iswat   		ṣ̣̣̣́uchit    	kwawit 	puchut  
Jic	texkan		tekpin				xuchit		kwawit
Com			tekpin				xuchit		kwawit
Chil			tekpin				xuchit		kwawit
C	texkan		tekpin		iswat		xu:chit		kwawit 	pu:chut

									cord,
	hogplum	grass		thorn		cacao		vine 
At
Tac	xugut		sagat   		witsti		kagawat  	mekat  
Maz	xukut				wichti				mekat "tule"
SD	xugut		sagat   		witsti		 gagawat  	megat
Nah			sakat   		witsti				mekat
Iz	xukut				wichti
Teo	ṣ̣̣̣́ukut				wisti				mekat
Jic	sakat   				witsti(n)  	kakawat  	mekat
Com	xukut								mekat
Chil									mekat
C	xukut		sakat   		witsti     	kakawat  	mekat

						manioc,
						sweet
	bean	cane	chili	tomato		potato		squash		avocado  
At	et		chil   	tumat
Tac  	et   	uwat		tumat		kamu(h)	ayu(h)
Maz  	et			tumat		kamu(h)			awakat
SD	e:t  	u:wat	chi:l  	tumat		gamuh		ayuh		a:wagat
Nah  	et		chil   	tumat		kamut		ayut		awakat
Iz	et			tumat		kamu(h)
Teo  	et   	uwat		tumat		kamut		ayut		awakat
Jic  	et   	uwat	chil   	tumat		kamut		ayut		awakat
Com  	et   	uwat	chil   	tumat		kamut		-ayu(h) 	awakat
Chil 	et	chil   		tumat				ayut		awakat
C	e:t  	u:wat	chi:l  	tumat		kamuh		ayuh		a:wakat

			achiote,
	guava		bixa		zapote		plantain	banana
At										
Tac  	chalugut			tsaput "anona" pula		inginya
Maz  	chalu(h)	achiyut   	tsaput		pula		kiniya(h)
SD	cha:lugut  	a:chi:yut 	tsaput		pula		giniyah
Nah			achut		tsaput		pula		giniya(h)
Iz			achut		tsaput		pula
Teo  	chalukut	achut		saput		pula		kiniya(h)
Jic			achut						kiniya(h)
Com					tsaput				kiniya(h)
Chil					saput						  
C	cha:lukut  	a:chiyut  	tsaput		pula		kiniyah

	tobacco, 	coyol    	maize    	maize				ear of
	cigar		palm     	(on cob) 	(shelled) 	corncob  	corn
At									ulut		elut
Tac	iyat		kuyul				tawiyal		ulut		elut
Maz			kuyul				tawiyal				elut
SD			guyul		sinti		tawiyal		ulut		e:lut
Nah			kuyul		sinti				ulut		elut
Iz							tawiyal
Teo			kuyul		sinti				ulut		elut
Jic	iyat		kuyul		sinti				ulyut    		elyut
Com	iyat				sinti		tawiyal		ulut		elut
Chil											elut
C			kuyul		sinti		tawiyal		ulut		e:lut

	green				tortilla 		metate   	pot,    
	corn		milpa		griddle		(quern)		jug	to grind 
At					kumal		metat		kumit
Tac	xilut		mil		kumal		metat		kumit		
Maz			mil		kumal		metat		kumit	-tisi    
SD	xi:lut		mi:l		gumal		metat		gu:mit   tisi    
Nah	xilut		mil		kumal		metat		kumit	-tisi    
Iz	xilut				kumal		metat		kumit	-tisi
Teo			milpa  		kumal		metat		-kun    
Jic	xilyut		mil    		kumayl   	metat   		kumit    tisi
Com			mi:l							-tisi
Chil										-tisi
C	xi:lut   		mi:l   		kuma:l   	metat    	ku:mit  -tisi

	lime								to be
	(cal)		tortilla		salt	meat	to eat		hungry
At			tamal		istat	nakat	-kwa   
Tac	tenex		tamal		istat	nagat	-kwa
Maz	tenex		tamal		istat	nakat	-kwa
SD	tenex		tamal		istat	nagat	-kwa   		mayana
Nah	tenex		tamal		istat	nakat	-kwa   		mayana
Iz					istat	nakat	-kwa
Teo			tamal		istat	nakat	-kwa   		mayana
Jic			taxkayl			nakat   	 kwa   		mayana
Com	tenex "ash" 	tamal		istat	nakat	-kwa   		mayana
Chil			taxkal		istat	nakat	-kwa
C	tenex		tamal		istat	nakat	-kwa   		maya:na

	bitter		sweet		sour		fire	smoke		ash(es)  
At	chichik						tit    
Tac	chichik				xuk		tit	pukti		nexti
Maz	chichik						tit    
SD	chichik   	tsupe:lek	xukuk		tit	pukti		nexti
Nah	chichik   	tsupelik	xuguk		tit
Iz	chichik						tit			nexti
Teo	chichik   	nektak				tit			neṣ̣̣̣́tan
Jic	chichik						tit
Com	chichik   	tsupelik	xukuk		tit	pukti		tenex
Chil							tit
C	chichik   	tsupe:lek	xuɣuk		ti:t	pukti		nexti

					bottle			water		gourd 							gourd			jug		bowl 
	cold		hot		(tecomate)		(cantaro)	(guacal)
At					tekumat					
Tac	sek-				tegumat				wahkal
Maz	sesik   		tutunik		tekumat		chuchukul	wahkal
SD	sesek   		tutu:nik  	tegumat		tsutsugul	wahkal
Nah	sesek   		tutunik		tekumat		tsutsukul	wahkal
Iz	sesek   		tutunik		tekumat				wahkal
Teo	-sek-   		tutunik		tekumat		tsutsukul	wahkal
Jic	-sek-				tekumat		tsutsukuyl
Com	sesek				tekumat		tsutsukul	wahkal
Chil								susukul	wahkal
C	sesek   		tutu:nik  	tekumat		tsutsukul	wahkal

	basket		sick		cough		eye	ear		hand
At							-ix			-mey  
Tac	chigiwit	kuguya   	tatasi-		-ix	-nagas  	-mey  
Maz	chikiwit	kukuya   	tatasis		-ix	nakas		-mey  
SD	chigiwit	guguya   	tatasi(s)	-i:x  	-nagas  	-mey  
Nah	kukuya   			tatasis		-ix	nakas		-mey  
Iz	chikiwit	kukuya				-ix	nakat		-mey  
Teo	chikiwat	kukuya				-ix	nakas		-may  
Jic	chikiwit	kukuya   	tatasis		-ix	nakas		-mey  
Com	chikiwit	kukuya   	tatasi		-ix	nakas		-may  
Chil			kukuya				-ix	nakas   
C	chiɣiwit	kukuya   	tatasi		 i:x  	nagas		 mey

	mouth		leg	tooth		head		leather		belly     
At	-ten					-tsuntegu
Tac	-ten   		-kxi			-tsuntegun  	kwetaxti  	-ihti
Maz	-ten		-kxi	-tan		-tsuntegun
SD	-te:n  		(i)kxi  	-tan		-tsuntegun  	kwetaxti  	-ihti
Nah	-ten		ikxi	-tan		-tsuntekun  	kwetax		-ihti
Iz	-ten			-tan		-tsuntekun
Teo	-ten		ikxi	-tan						yulu
Jic	-ten		-kxi	-tan		-tsuntekun  	-kwetax	yulyu
Com	-ten		ikxi			-tsuntekun			-ihti
Chil  	-ten									-ihti
C	-te:n  		(i)kxi  	-tan		-tsuntekun  	kwetaxti  	-ihti

	finger- 
	nail		hair		blood		to sleep	to die 
At							kuchi		miki
Tac	istit		tsunkal		-is-yu		guchi		migi
Maz	-istit				esti		kuchi		miki
SD	-istit		-tsungal	esti		guchi		migi
Nah	-istit		tsunkal		etsti		kuchi		miki
Iz	-istit		tsunkal		-es-yu				miki
Teo							kuchi		miki
Jic	istit		-tsunkayl  	 es yu		kuchi     	miki
Com			tsunkal				kuchi		miki
Chil									miki
C	itstit		-tsunkal	esti		kuchi		miɣi

	red		yellow		green		black		white   
At																 
Tac			tultik						istak   
Maz					xuxuwik			istak
SD	chi:ltik  	tultik		xuxuwik  	ti:ltik  		istak   
Nah	chiltik		tultik		xuxuk-				istak   
Iz	chiltik		tultik						istak
Teo	chiltik								istak   
Jic	chiltik						kutiltik 	istik   
Com	chiltik						tiltik		istak   
Chil  	chiltik
C	chi:ltik  	tultik		xuxuwik  	ti:ltik  		istak																									woods,
				there is,  	land,				uncleared
	road	heavy		there are	earth	stone	ravine		land 
At	uhti  	etek		nemi		tal	tet	ustut  		kohtan
Tac	uhti  	etik					tet
Maz	uhti					tal	tet
SD	uhti  	etek		nemi		ta:l	tet	ustu:t 		kohtan
Nah	uhti  	etek		nemi		tal	tet			kohtan
Iz	uhti  			nemi		tal	tet			kuhtan
Teo	-uh-  			nemi			tet	-ustu-
Jic	uhti  			nemi		tayl	tet   	ustut
Com	uhti  	etik		nemi		tal	tet	ustut
Chil  	uhti  			nemi			tet
C	uhti  	etek		nemi		ta:l	tet	ustu:t 		kuhtan

	
	mountain	water		to bathe	to wash	soap		sun      
At	pitet		at    		m-altyá	-paga		xapun		tunal
Tac	tepet		at								tunal
Maz			at				-paka				tunal
SD	tepe:t		a:t   		m-a:lti[y]a 	-pa:ga		xapun		tu:nal
Nah	tepet		at    		m-altiya	-paka				tunal
Iz	tepet		at						xapun		tunal
Teo	tepet		at    		m-altiya			ṣ̣̣̣́apun   	tunal
Jic	tepet		at    		m-ayltiya	 paka    	xapun   	tunayl
Com			at		m-altiya			xapun		tunal
Chil			at
C	tepe:t		a:t		m-a:lti(y)a 	-pa:ga   	xapun		tu:nal

	moon,
	month		wind		father		male		man		woman
At	metsti		ehekat		-teku		ukich		tagat		siwat
Tac	metsti		kwehegat					tagat		siwat
Maz	metsti				tata				takat		siwat
SD	me:tsti  	ehegat		-te:gu		ugich		ta:gat  		siwa:t
Nah	me:tsti  	ahakat		-teku		ukich		takat		siwat
Iz	metsti				-teku				tagat		siwat
Teo	mesti		ehekat		-teku		ukich		takat		siwat
Jic	metsti		ehekat		-teku				takat		siwat
Com					-tata		ukich		takat		siwat
Chil			ehekat						takat		siwat
C	me:tsti  	ehekat		-te:gu  		ukich   		ta:gat 		siwa:t

	old		old		boy		to want		to give		to buy
	man     		woman 
At	xulet				piltsín  	-negi		-maga		-kwa
Tac					pilchín
Maz					piltsín
SD	chu:let 		lamat		piltsín  	-negi		-maga		-kuwa
Nah	xulet   		lamat		piltsín  	-neki		-ma(ka)  	-kuwa
Iz	xuret				piltsín  	-neki
Teo	ṣ̣̣̣́ułet				piltsín  	-neki		-maka		-kuwa
Jic	xulyet  		lyamata						-maka    	-kuwa
Com	xulet   		lamachin  	piltsínn  	-neki   		-maka		-kuwa
Chil  	xulet   		lamat     
C	xu:ré:t 		lamahtsin 	piltsín  	-neki		-maga		-kuwa

	pants		hat		skirt		sandal		mat	house  	big   
At	-sala		xumpe		kweyat 	 -kak		petat  	-chan  	wey
Tac			xumpe		-kwey		kakti  		petat  	kal	-wey  
Maz			-xumpe							wey   
SD	-sala		xumpe		-kwey		-gak		petat  	gal	we:y  
Nah					 kweyat  	-kak		petat  	kal	wey   
Iz	-sala						-kak		-pet	kal
Teo	-sala		śumpe   	-kway		-kak   		petat  	kal    	wey   
Jic	-salya  		suwat   	-kwey		kakti  		petat  	kayl   	wey
Com					-kway				petat  	kal	wey
Chil										kal
C	-sala		xumpe		-kwey	-kak			petat  	kal	we:y

	hard		one		three		four		five		half
At	takwák		se		yey		nawi		nawpwil   	tahku
Tac	takwawak	se		yey		nawi		makwil
Maz			se
Dom	takwa:wak  	se:		ye:y		na:wi  		(makwil)  	tahku
Nah			se		yey		nawi		makwil		tahku
Iz	takwawak	se		yey		nawi		mapil
Teo			se		yey		nawi		makwil		tahku
Jic			se		yey		nawi		makwil
Com			se
Chil			selin		 
C	takwa:wak  	se:		ye:y		na:wi  		makwil		tahku

	night		now		yesterday		tomorrow

At	tayuwa				yaluwa			musta
Tac	tayuwaya
Maz
SD	tayuwa		a(:)xa(:)n	yaluwa			mu:sta
Nah	tayuwa		axan		yaluwa			musta
Iz	tayuwal			yaluwan		musta
Teo	tayuwa		aṣ̣̣̣́an		musta
Jic	tayuwa		axan		yalyuwa     		musta
Com			axan					musta
Chil								musta
C	tayuwa		a:xa:n		yaluwa			mu:sta

Chapter 2

Phonology

2.0. Introduction

	In this chapter the phonology of Pipil is described.  First, the practical orthography used to represent Pipil sounds is presented; second, phonetic variants (allophones) are explained; and finally the phonological processes (morphophonemic rules) are given and discussed.  By and large the underlying segments and autonomous phonemes of Pipil coincide, save for the changes in underlying forms that take place in the phonological processes.  The practical orthography, when such changes have occurred, corresponds to the autonomous (traditional structuralism) phonemic level.

2.1. The phonetic value of the orthographic symbols

	The phonetic value of the practical alphabet employed for Pipil is easily grasped from Chart I, the phonological inventory, while the following comments will help specify the content of these symbols.  The sounds in parentheses are for the most part found only in Spanish loanwords.  The ch is /č/, a voiceless alveopalatal affricate.  The /kw/ is a voiceless labialized (or labiovelar) stop, like the cu of Spanish cuando "when" or the qu of English quick. The letter x is an alveopalatal fricative, /ś/, like the sh of English shoe. The symbol x is employed for this sound in Pipil because it is the letter used in Central American Spanish (mostly found in loan words from Indian languages) to represent that sound and it is the symbol recommended by the Instituto Indigenista Nacional of Guatemala.  Actually, before the seventeenth century Spanish had an alveo-palatal fricative, spelled with x, but this changed to a velar fricative, now written j.  The use of x to represent this sound in Central American Indian languages was entrenched before the Spanish sound change.  The r and rr are as in Spanish, an alveolar flap (r in the International phonetic Alphabet, r in American phonetic systems) and an alveolar trill (IPA r(:), American r), respectively.  The h is simply a phonetic /h/ (voiceless glottal fricative), as in English house.  Vowels have essentially the same value as the corresponding vowels of Spanish, although there is in addition a length contrast. The vowels u and u: can vary freely in their phonetic realization among u(:), U(:), and o(:), but u and u: are by far the most frequent and common pronunciations.  The e varies in a very few cases with i in less careful speech, e.g. ne / ni 'definite article', -nech- / -nich- "me" ('first person singular object pronoun'), etc.
	Vowel length is an important contrast, but it is difficult to determine in many cases. There are such minimal pairs as pa:ta "to melt" / pata "to change";  ne: "there" / ne 'definite article'; the roots me:ts- "moon" / mets- "thigh"; etc., but such pairs are not frequent.  The difficulty is that, due to Pipil's moribund state, many speakers no longer make the vowel-length contrast, or they do it only in more formal contexts.  Among my main consultants in Cuisnahuat, one lacked the contrast altogether, another had it only in formal contexts (for example when carefully comparing linguistic forms, reciting word lists, etc.), and a third used it consistently throughout his speech.  In Santo Domingo de Guzmán my consultants generally lacked the contrast in everyday speech, but were able to produce the distinctions when queried about individual words.  Nevertheless, only two individuals there maintained the distinction consistently in a way relatively easy to perceive.  In both dialects the length contrast is clear only in stressed syllables, i.e. the penultimate, in most forms.  Notwithstanding, in many cases different syllables may be stressed in derivations with varied prefixes or suffixes, e.g. /masa:-t/ (másat) "deer", /masa:-tsin/ (masá:tsiŋ) "little  deer"; /te:lpu:ch/ (té:lpuch) "son", /te:lpu:ch-tsin/ (telpú:chtsiŋ) "little son"; /tekuma-t/ (tekúmat) "bottle gourd",  /nu-tekun/ (nutékuŋ) "my bottle gourd", /tekuma-tsin/  [tekumátsiŋ] "little bottle gourd" ("tecomatillo"); etc. (These examples are cited from Cuisnahuat dialect).
	In Cuisnahuat all word-initial vowels are phonetically long, although those followed by a single consonant are longer than those followed by two, e.g. /i:sa/ (i:sa) "to wake up", /ulu-t/ (u:lut) "corncob", /ista-t/ (iּstat) "salt".  Underlying vowel length can be determined in such forms by finding the form with some prefix which removes the vowel from word-initial position, e.g. /uh-ulu-t/ (uhúlut) "corncobs", /nu-ulu/ (nu(w)úlu) "my corncob", /n-i:sa-k/ [ní:sak] "I woke up". Santo Domingo de Guzmán has undergone certain changes with respect to vowel length in trisyllabic words, particularly verbs. With V to represent a syllable, forms with V V́ V have changed to V V́ V in many cases.
	In the final analysis, although I did all I could to determine underlying vowel length accurately for each of the forms of the dictionary, many cases remain in which vowel length is simply uncertain.  The marking of length is much more secure in stressed syllables and in frequently occurring words.
								
CHART I
					
Pipil Phonological Inventory
 
			Labial	Dental 	Alveo-	Velar	Labio-	Glottal									palatal        	velar
Stops &
Affricates
	Voiceless	p    	t   ts    	ch      	k      	kw 
	Voiced		(b)  	(d)		(g)                               
Fricatives    		(f)       	     s    	x                      	h                	
Liquids			 l   
				(r) (rr)
Nasals			m    	n 
Semivowels		w		y 

			Front   		Central   	Posterior
High			i      i:			   	u   u:   
Mid			e     e:			  	(o) (o:) 
Low					a     a:
	2.1.1. Phonetic variants (allophones).  Some of the segments presented in Chart 1 have non-distinctive contextual variants (allophones), which are taken up now.  For consistency and for ease of reference, phonetic citations in this book will employ the practical orthographic symbols whenever these are applicable rather than symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet or of the modified American phonetic schemes.  Thus, for example, a phonetic transcription i:x "eye" contains the x which is an alveopalatal fricative.
	1) Basically b, d, and g occur only in words of Spanish origin and have the same pronunciation as in Spanish.  That is, word-initially and after a nasal or l they are phonetic stops, but after a vowel or other consonants they are fricatives, just as in the following Spanish examples: dedo [dedo] "finger", bebo [bebo] "I drink", and griego [grieɣo] "Greek".
	2) The pronunciation of k varies depending on the dialect (cf. section 1.4).  In Cuisnahuat, it is pronounced g or g between two a's or between vowels where the first is long; in other contexts it is normally k, except for initial k of the 'third person sg. pronominal' prefix in many cases.  In Santo Domingo de Guzmán it is pronounced g initially and intervocalically, while it is [k] in other contexts.  Since the conditions for these allophones are relatively complicated, occasionally in the dictionary and in one sample text from each dialect (H and N) the phonetic transcription is presented together with the regular (phonemic) form.
	3) The n is pronounced just as in local Spanish, as n, save word-finally and preconsonantally where it is pronounced as a velar nasal (ŋ).  With some frequency this n is phonetically velar also before t, s, ts, ch, and x, where it alternates with n.  In certain compounds of more recent formation, a final n of one lexical component of the compound which precedes an initial vowel of a following element is often pronounced as a velar nasal, acting in this case as though it were word-final.  Such cases are presented with a = representing the compound juncture, e.g. mu-tsun=ahwilia "to wet one’s head", phonetically mutsuŋahwiliya? (cf. tsun- "head" ahwilia "to wet").
	4) Historically the non-nasal sonorants (w, y, l, and r) had a voiceless allophone word-finally and before voiceless consonants, i.e. W, Y, l, and R respectively.  These variants are still found, but now in alternation with their voiced counterparts.  It should be pointed out that historically the final -y not only became voiceless in this position, but further changed to x.  This is seen in such Pipil examples as ni-k-u:ya "I shell it" (where the -a 'present transitive' keeps the y from final position) compared to ni-k-ux "I shelled it", with -y in final position converted to x.  Nevertheless, there are final y's of more recent origin in the language which become voiceless word-finally without turning into -x, e.g. nu-mey (númeY or númey) "my hand".
	5) Words borrowed from Spanish that contain f vary greatly in their pronunciation.  These loans tend to have h, but in actual occurrences vary among f (labiodental), ɸ(bilabial), ɸw(labialized bilabial), hw, and h.  These realizations depend largely on the volition of the speaker and in part on the vowel that follows (e.g. h is much more common and f much less frequent with a following round vowel).  Older and more assimilated loans have h.
	6) In all dialects of Pipil an automatic phonetic glottal stop (ʔ) occurs after final vowels.  Given that this glottal stop is totally predictable, it is not represented formally in the spelling of Pipil forms, e.g. xumpe (xumpe?) "hat",  temu (temu?) "to descend", pula (pula?) "plantain", pe:lu (pe:lu?) "dog" etc.
	7) Stress falls on the penultimate syllable, e.g. ni-ma:ltia (nimaltíya?) "I bathe", tsun-tekuma-t (tsuntekúmat) "head", nu-tsun-tekun (nutsuntékuŋ) "my head", etc.  Since accent (stress) is predictable in this position, it is marked formally in the spelling only in those few exceptions where it does not appear in the penultimate syllable.  These cases, however, are very rare.  
	8) After i and before another vowel a y is automatically inserted; similarly a phonetic w automatically appears between a u and a following vowel.  Since these are predictable, they are not represented in the spelling.  There are, however, underlying (basic) y's and w's in such environments which are formally represented in the orthography.  This difference, then, constitutes one case in which the orthography does not coincide directly with the autonomous phonemic level.  In this environment in fast speech the i and u may be reduced or even fully lost, giving such examples as: ki-ahsi-k (giyahsik or gyahsik) "(he/she) found it", ki-a:n-ke-t (giya:nget or gya:nget) "they picked it up", tu-a:pan (tuwa:pan or twa:pan) "our  river (Tepechata River)", ni-mu-i:x-tu:ka (nimuwixtu:ga? or nimwixtu:ga?) "I enter (I put myself in)", i-uh-u:mi-yu (iyuhu:miyu?) "his/her/its bones",   i-a:xi:x (ya:xi(:)x) "his/her/its urine", etc.
	9) The w is basically a phonetic w, but its pronunciation is equivalent to that of local Spanish words (spelled with gu- or hu-), varying among w, w (semivowel with some velar friction), ɣw (functionally a single segment, but phonetically a sequence of a stronger velar fricative plus w), and gw (w with a voiced velar stop onset).

2.2. Phonological processes (morphophonemic rules)	
	In addition to the phonetic variants (allophones) just considered, Pipil has the following phonological rules which involve alternations among phonemes.
	
	(1) Vowel loss rules.  In Pipil a vowel may be lost in several contexts, as follows.
	(1.1) Vowel loss in verbs.  Pipil has four classes of verbs (see section 3.7.3.).  In the first, which is the largest class, the final vowel of the root is lost with most suffixes, save the 'present' (e.g. ni-k-chiwa "I do it", ni-k-chiw-ki "I did it", ni-k-chiw-tuk "I have done it").  For the most part verb classes can be characterized by their phonological attributes, although there is a reasonably large number of verbs which do not conform completely, given their phonological form.  Nevertheless, most class I verbs are of the form (C)VCV, i.e. of two syllables with no internal consonant cluster. This class loses its root-final vowel in many contexts to be discussed presently. Class II is also a large class whose members are typically characterized phonologically by the forms (C)VCCV, (C)Vka, or (C)VCu; that is, they have a consonant cluster before the final vowel or end in -ka or -u. Class II verbs typically do not lose their final vowel in the vowel-loss rule. Still, there are a few (C)Vka forms which do drop the -a, just as there are a few (C)VCV (class I) verbs which do not lose the last root vowel.  Thus, we formulate the following rule:

Rule la) Vowel loss in verbs: the final vowel of verb roots is generally lost in final position or before a suffix which begins with voiceless consonant in (C)VCV forms, but not in (C)VCCV, (C)Vka, or (C)VCu forms.
Some indications of how this rule works are the following.
	a) The root-final vowel is maintained after a consonant cluster: -ahsi-k "(he) arrived", -chihcha-k "(he) spat", -ixka-k "(he) roasted (it)", uksi-k "cooked", etc.
	b) The root-final vowel is maintained when the verbal root ends in -ka: -chu:ka-k "(he)  cried", -maka-k "(he) gave", -tu:ka-k "(he) planted", -wika-k "(he) carried (it)", etc.
	c) The final vowel of the verb root is preserved because it ends in -u: panu-k "(it) passed",  -temu-k "(he) descended", -ehku-k, etc.
	d) The rule applies and here the final vowel is lost (the 'present' being compared with 'past' forms):  a:na, -an-ki "(he) grabbed  (it)"; -chiya, -chix-ki "(she) looked", -kaki, -kak "(she) heard (it)"; -nemi, nen-ki "(it) was"; ki:sa, ki:s-ki "(she) left"; etc.
		
(1.2) 	Vowel loss in nouns.  A rule very similar to the vowel loss rule in verbs also applies to nouns, except that the final -u of nouns may also be dropped and the loss of a of noun roots ending in -ka is variable with respect to loss. This is indeed a phonologically conditioned rule, though its application is most easily perceived in certain grammatical contexts, for example in nominal forms bearing a possessive prefix where the absolutive suffix is not present so that the end of the noun root is bare (see section 3.1.1.), leaving root-final vowels in word-final position.  Its application is also noted in compound words (see section 4.7).  The rule, then is:

Rule 1b) Vowel loss in nouns:  a root-final vowel of a noun (i, e, a, and sometimes u) is lost before voiceless consonants of suffixes or in nominal compounds if the loss would not result in a monosyllabic form, or in a consonant cluster of two members word-finally, or in a cluster of more than two consonants word-internally.

	Some examples of this rule's application, in which nouns with the absolutive suffix compared with other forms, are:  atimi-t, nu-atin "my louse"; chikiwi-t, nu-chikiw "my basket"; kakawa-t, nu-kakaw "my cacao"; kaxi-t, nu-kax "my bowl"; kuyame-t, nu-kuyan "my pig"; kwita-t, nu-kwit "my excrement"; peta-t, nu-pet "my mat"; tekuma-t, nu-tekun "my bottle gourd"; ikx-u:miyu "shin" (from ikxi- "foot" + u:mi-yu "bone"); ku:n-ti:l "soot" (from ku:mi- "pot" + ti:l "soot  (black))"; kuyan-iswa-t "cuyanigua (a wild root like a sweet potato)" (from kuyame- "pig" + iswa-t  "leaf"); etc.

(1.3) Vowel loss in suffixes.  This same rule applies to suffixes, as well.  For example, the absolutive suffix has two main allomorphs, -ti with nouns that end in a consonant, and -t with those which terminate in a vowel (see section 3.1.1).  With -ti as the underlying (basic) form of this suffix, the -i is lost if no consonant clusters result. For example, underlying /a:ka-ti/ "reed" becomes a:ka-t (recall that the root-final -a is not lost when it is protected by the k (see  above)), while in /es-ti/ "blood"  the -i of the absolutive -ti is maintained since that  its loss  would otherwise result in a final consonant cluster and also in a monosyllabic form. Some examples both with -C-ti and with -V-t are:  kak-ti "sandal", pah-ti "medicine", tix-ti "corn dough", sin-ti "maize", me:ts-ti "moon"; a:waka-t "avocado", a:chiyu-t "bixa (achiote)", a:-t "water", e:-t "bean", e:lu-t "roasting ear (ear of corn)", ku:ska-t "necklace", kwawi-t "tree"; etc.
	Similarly, the 'preterite (past tense)' suffix has two allomorphs, -ki after consonants and -k after vowels.  (It also has the variant Ø in some cases, but that is not relevant to this rule (see section 3.3.2.).)  With /-ki/ as the underlying (basic) form, the vowel-loss rule eliminates the -i if no consonant clusters arise.  For example, compare -maka-k "(he) gave (it)", where the -a of the verb root is protected from loss by the k and where the final -i of the suffix is lost, with -chiw-ki "(he) did (it)", where the-root final vowel was lost which created a consonant cluster which in turn prevented the final vowel of the 'preterite' suffix from loss (for more examples, see section 3.3.2.).

(1.4) Vowel loss in prefixes.  Pipil generally keeps its prefix-final vowels in contrast to Classical Nahuatl and most other Nahua varieties, which tend to lose a prefix vowel when it appears before another vowel.  Notwithstanding, in certain limited contexts Pipil also loses this vowel.  Unlike these other varieties of Nahua, Pipil does not lose the vowel of possessive prefixes or of subject pronominal prefixes on verbs, except before the verbal directional morpheme (w)al- or before i.  Some examples are:

		n-i:xwi_ "I'm filling up/getting full" (from ni-i:xwi)
		x-ihisiwi "hurry up!" (from xi-ihisiwi)
		t-ihkiti "you weave" (from ti-ihkiti)
and:
		x-al-ahsi "find it!" (cf. xi-ahsi "arrive!")
		t-al-ahsi-k "you  found  it" (cf. ti-ahsi-k "you arrived")
		n-al-ahsi-k_ "I found it" (cf. _ni-ahsi-k_ "I arrived")
		t-al-ahsi-ke-t "we found it" (cf. ti-ahsi-ke-t "we arrived").

Note	that the -al- allomorph of (w)al- appears after a consonant (cf. section 3.7.6.1).

	Vowel loss in the 'third person singular object' prefix ki-, on the other hand, is more general, and quite similar to that of Classical Nahuatl.  Basically the i is lost when it is preceded by another vowel, that is, when preceded by another prefix which ends in a vowel, e.g.  ni-k-chiwa "I do it" (from ni-ki-chiwa).  The i is also lost when followed by another vowel, which generally turns out to be the initial vowel of verb roots, e.g., k-uni "(she) drinks it" (from ki-uni), k-i:xtu:ka "(he) inserts it" (from ki-i:xtu:ka), k-uli:nia "(he) stirs it" (from  ki-uli:nia), etc.  Nevertheless, there are exceptions to this; the i is not lost before -ah or -el, derivational elements (see section 3.3.6) when ki- is not preceded by another prefix, e.g. ki-ah-wa "(she) scolds him", ki-el-kawa "(he) forgets it", ki-ah-ka:na "(he) fans it", ki-ah-kawa "(he) leaves  it" (cf. ni-k-ah-kawa "I leave it").
	Generally the vowel of the 'reflexive' prefix mu- is kept, with a few exceptions. Some examples of these exceptions are:
		m-ihtutia "to dance" (cf. k-ihtutia "to dance it")
		m-ihkwani "to remove oneself" (cf. k-ihkwani "to remove it")
		m-i:naya "to hide (oneself)" (cf. k-i:naya "to hide it")
		m-itu:niya "to sweat"
		m-a:ltia "to bathe (oneself)" (cf.  k-a:ltia "to bathe him/her")
		m-a:wiltia "to play" (cf. k-a:wiltia "to play it")

These exceptional forms can be compared with the more general cases, such as:
		mu-i:xmu:tia "to   be  frightened" (cf. k-i:xmu:tia "to frighten him/her it")
		mu-i:xtu:ka "to insert, put in"
		mu-i:xyu:lkwi "to revive, come to"
		mu-uli:nia "to be stirred"
		mu-ahkape:wia "to fan flies away from oneself"
		mu-ahsuma "to comb oneself"
		mu-e(t)s-tuk "to be seated"
		mu-a:paka "to wash oneself"
		mu-ihchiki "to scrub oneself"
		mu-a:te:kia "to wet, sprinkle oneself"
		mu-ikxichalua "to stumble, trip"
		(See section 3.3.4.3.)
	Finally, the morpheme -ta- "something" ('unspecified object') loses its vowel (a) before another a, e.g. t-ahwilia "to wet something" (from ta-ahwilia).  In Santo Domingo de Guzman this a is lost frequently before other vowels, as well, e.g. t-uchpa:na "to sweep", from ta-uchpa:na, compare Cuisnahuat ta-chpa:na), t-iskalia "to raise, grow" (cf. Cuisnahuat ta-iskalia (see section 3.3.4.4.)).
	
	(2) Vowel prothesis.  Pipil, like other varieties of Nahua, has some underlying forms which begin with two consonants, but such roots show the initial consonant cluster only when they are preceded by a prefix ending in a vowel.  Otherwise, when these roots occur without a prefix, a prothetic i (often called epenthetic in Nahua literature) always comes before the consonants.  In examples presented in this book, the epenthetic i is presented in parentheses, i.e. (i), and such forms are found listed in the dictionary under the letter i. Some examples which show both the presence and absence of this epenthetic i are:

	(i)chteki "to steal"		ta-chteki "to steal something, 
						to be stealing"
	(i)hkwilua "to write"		ta-hkwilua "to be writing"
	(i)hpak "on it"			nu-hpak "on me"
	(i)hseki "to toast"		ta-hseki "to be toasting"
	(i)htsuma "to sew"		ta-htsuma "to be sewing"
	(i)kxi "foot"			nu-kxi "my foot", ta-ks-a "to kick"
	(i)xka "to roast"		ta-xka-l "tortilla, rigua"
					(literally "something roasted").

	Forms with epenthetic i contrast with others which have underlying i, which does not disappear with prefixes, e.g. nu-ihti "my stomach", (Cuisnahuat) ta-iskalia "to be creating (something)", etc.  The rule is, then:

Rule 2) Vowel prothesis: an i is prothesized to forms which begin with two consonants if these are not preceded by a prefix which ends in a vowel.

	(3) Devoicing of sonorants.  As mentioned above, Pipil has a rule which devoices non-nasal final and preconsonantal sonorants (w, y, l, and r), which has both allophonic and morphophonemic effects.  Today this rule presents considerable variation in the different dialects, but it is still in force (cf. section 1.4).  By this rule, final y not only becomes voiceless, but changes to x as well, if the y is not of recent origin in the language.  To this extent, the rule has morphophonemic outcome, given that y and x are contrastive segments.  The alternation of l with l, and w with W, (and of y with Y in the forms of recent origin is a matter of allophonic variants, the voiceless allophone found only in word-final or pre-consonantal position.  The following are some examples of the alternation of y with x:

	chiya "to look"		 -chix-ki "looked"
	piya "to have"		 	 -pix-ki "had"
	tayi "to clear ground"		 -tax-ki "cleard ground"
	u:ya "to shell (corn)"		 -u:x-ki "shelled"

	(4) Loss of h.  In Pipil h can appear finally, before consonants, and at the end of a reduplicated first syllable, but in other contexts the *h of Proto-Nahua is lost.  This has produced an alternation between h and Ø.  It explains the verbs of class III which in the 'present' end in -ia (phonetically –iya) and -ua (phonetically -uwa), but in other tenses or aspects end in  -ih and -uh.  Historically such verbs bore an h between the final two vowels (*-iha and *-uha), which was lost when it came to be in intervocalic position.  A few examples which show the presence versus absence of h in such verbs are:

	sa:lua "to stick, glue"		sa:luh-ke-t "they glued"
	talua "to run"			taluh-tuk "has run"
	k-ilpia "(he) ties it"		k-ilpih-tuk "has tied it"
	ki-ta:lia  "(he) puts it"		ki-ta:lih-ke-t "they put it"

	Although these verbs appear phonetically with y or w before a, this y and w can be predicted from their intervocallic position.  Such verbs contrast with those that have y or w as part of their underlying form and therefore do not lose these sounds in other tenses or aspects, e.g. ti:ltiya "to become black", ti:ltiya-k "it became black"; itu:niya "to sweat",  itu:nix-ki "(he) sweat (past)"  (cf. kuwa "to buy", puwa "to count").  Pipil, then, has two rules which describe these phenomena:

Rule 3) h-loss:  an intervocalic h (particularly before the last vowel) is lost.  This does not apply to reduplicated first syllables.

Rule 4) Epenthesis of y and w:  between i and another vowel y is inserted; between u and another vowel a w is inserted (i.e. iV > iyV, uV > uwV).

	(5) Change of w to h.  A syllable-final -w (either word-final or preconsonantal) becomes h in Cuisnahuat generally.  In Santo Domingo de Guzmán w in the position remains w except when preceded by a u, where in this case it changes to h.  Some examples, marked (SD) for Santo Domingo de Guzmán and (C) for Cuisnahuat, are:

	kuwa "to buy"              	-kuh-ki (SD, C) "bought"
	puwa "to count"            	-puh-ki (SD, C) "counted"
	suwa "to spread out"       	-suh-ki (SD, C) "spread"				me:wa "to weed"            	-me:h-tuk (C) "has weeded" 
						(me:w-tuk (SD))
	pe:wa "to begin"           	pe:h-ki (C) "began" 
						(cf. pe:w-ki (SD))
	se:wi "to go out,		se:h-tuk (C) "has gone out" 
		to extinguished"	(cf. se:w-tuk (SD))
	ni-k-elkah (C) "I forgot it"  	(cf. ni-k-elkaw (SD)).

Nevertheless, this rule does not apply to a w in Cuisnahuat which has come to be in final position due to the application of the vowel loss rule in nouns, e.g. nu-chikiw "my basket" (from chikiwit), nu-kakaw "my cacao" (from kakawa-t).  The w of these forms need not be considered a complication for the rule that changes syllable-final w to h in Cuisnahuat if this w -to- h rule (rule 5) is applied before the rule which deletes final vowels (rule 1b).  The rule, then, is:

Rule 5) w -to- h change: In Cuisnahuat syllable-final w of underlying forms becomes h. This rule applies before vowel loss (rule 1b). In Santo Domingo de Guzmán a syllable-final w preceded by u becomes h.

	(6) Palatalization.  Certain consonants are palatalized before the 'causative' suffix, -(i)(l)tia.  In Pre-Proto-Nahua this suffix bore an i which conditioned the change of s to x, and of ts to ch (and of t to ch in one form).  However, this i no longer exists in the majority of causative cases, making this palatalization appear to be a morphologically, rather than phonologically conditioned rule, dependent upon the 'causative' suffix.  The seeds of the change are noted in such forms as (i)kxi "foot" with s palatalized to x before i; compare ta-ks-a "to kick", which contains the "foot" root, but with non-palatalized s before the suffix -a.  Some examples which show this palatalization are:

	i:sa "to awake"        		i:xi-tia "to wake (someone)" 
	ki:sa "to leave"       		ki:x-tia "to take out   
	ahsi "to arrive, find" 		ahxi-tia "to place near"
	ne:si "to appear"      		ne:x-tia "to show, discover"
	uksi "to cook, ripen"  		ukxi-tia "to cause to ripen"
	mati "to know"         		mach-tia "to learn"
The rule is:

Rule 6) Palatalization:  a root-final s changes to x and ts to ch in verbs bearing a 'causative' suffix.

	(7) Nasal assimilation.  Nasals assimilate to the point of articulation of following stops and affricates, and change to ŋ (velar nasal) word-finally and before most other consonants.  Thus before p (and b) nasals become m; before k (and g) they shift to velars (ŋ); and n is found before t, ts, ch, (and d), but sometimes the velar nasal (ŋ) appears in this context before dentals and alveolars.  The velar nasal occurs before most other consonants and word-finally.  Since ŋ (velar nasal) is predictable in these positions and is not contrastive with other nasals in any other environment, it is traditionally treated as an allophone of /n/.  Thus, when an underlying /n/ appears in these contexts as a phonetic velar nasal (ŋ) it is not signaled directly in the orthography, but rather is simply written as n.  However, when an underlying /m/ is converted to ŋ word-finally, it is a morphophonemic change and is represented in the basically autonomous phonemic orthography as n, to which the velar allophone is attributed in these positions.  An /m/ may find itself in final position, and hence phonetically ŋ, due to the prior application of the vowel loss rule.  Some examples are:

	atimi-t "louse"			nu-atiŋ (nuwatiŋ) "my louse"
	ku:mi-t "pot, jug"		nu-ku:n "my pot"
	tekuma-t "bottle gourd"	nu-tekun "my bottle gourd"
	mu-ahsuma "to comb		mu-ahsun "(she) combed 
			oneself"			herself"
	ta-htsuma "to sew"		ta-htsun-ki "sewed"
	mima "to shoot		min-tuk "has shot"
		(with an arrow)"
	nemi "to be"			nen-ki "was"
	te:mi "to fill"			te:n-tuk "full"
	ku:n-tapa "potsherd"		(from ku:mi- "pot" + 
						tapa:ni "to break").

Some examples of the assimilation of n to m before p are:

	mu-te:m-pa:ka "to wash one's mouth" (cf. te:n "mouth")
  	mu-tsum-pa:ka "to wash one's head" (cf. tsun "head")
	tsim-bankuh-yu "hip" (cf. tsin- "buttock")

Some other examples of the velar nasal are:

	anmu-chan "your (pl.) house"		(aŋmuchaŋ)
	tsinnex "dirty rumped"		(tsiŋnex)
	tsin-kach-yu "posol"			(tsiŋgachyu?)
	tsin-kamak "buttock"		 	(tsiŋgamak)
	tsin-kuhku "back"			(tsiŋguhku?)
	tsun-kal "hair"				(tsuŋgal)
	te:n-na:miki "to worship"		(teŋnamiki?)
	te:n-nux "taciturn"			(te:ŋnux)
	te:n-a:yu "saliva, spit"			(teŋa:yu?)
	tsin-u:miyu "hip(bone)"		(tsiŋumiyu?)
	an-ehemet "you (pl.)"			(aŋehemet)
	mu-tsun-ahwilia "to wet		(mutsuŋahwiliya?)
			one's head"
	tsun-istak "grey hair"			(tsuŋistak)
	te:n-xi:pal "(animal's) lip"  		(teŋxi:pal)
	te:n-tsahka "lid, stopper"		(tentsahka?)
	tsun-tekuma-t "skull, head"   		(tsuntekumat)
	tsun-chalua "to pound, smash" 	(tsunchaluwa?)

It should be noticed that in compound words a final nasal of a preceding construct is phonetically velar before an initial vowel of a following element, e.g. as seen in the case of "saliva", "hip", "grey hair", etc. listed here.

The rule is:

Rule 7) Nasal assimilation: a final nasal (/m/ or /n/) becomes ŋ phonetically (n in the orthography). Nasals assimilate to the point of articulation of following stops and affricates; the n before dentals and alveopalatals sometimes varies with (ŋ).

	(8) Delabialization.  The labiovelar (/kw/) loses its labialization at the end of a syllable.  Some examples are:

	tsak-tuk "closed"           	(from tsakwa "to close")					ni-k-ihnek "I smelled it"	(from ihnekwi "to smell")

The rule is:
Rule 8) Delabialization:  /kw/ becomes /k/ finally and before consonants.

	(9) k to h before k, and k-loss.  In careful speech, an underlying /k/ of roots before another k is maintained as such, but in normal, speech this k becomes h.  Some examples are:

	sahsah-ke-t "they uprooted" (from sahsak-ke-t_)
	tsah-ka "lid" (from tsakwa + -ka, where vowel loss and delabialization have taken 	place prior to the application of this rule)

However, the k of the 'third person singular pronominal object' prefix is lost before another k or before kw, e.g. ni-k-kwa (nikwa?) "I eat it", ni-k-kaki (nigagi?) "I hear it".
The rule is:

Rule 9) k to h; k loss before k:  /k/ of lexical roots becomes  h before a consonant in normal speech; /k/ of 'third person singular pronominal object' prefix is lost before velar stops (k and kw).

	(10) w-loss in -(w)al.  The 'directional' prefix - (w)al on verbs occurs with the w present if nothing precedes it, but the w is lost when preceded by another prefix, for example:

	wal-naka-k "(he) remained", n-al-naka-k "I remained", t-al-naka-k "you remained"
	wal-temu "(he) descended", n-al-temu "I descended"
	x-al-ahsi "find it!"

The rule is:
Rule 10) w-loss in the 'directional' prefix:  w is lost from the 'directional' morpheme -(w)al when preceded by another prefix.

	(11) Variation.  Cuisnahuat Pipil has occasional "free" variation in the 'imperative' morpheme xi- between x and ch.  Also, at times h is pronounced with more friction, approaching a velar fricative nearly equivalent in phonetic value to the local pronunciation of the Spanish voiceless velar fricative (orthographic j).  In both Cuisnahuat and Santo Domingo de Guzmán, the 'diminutive' suffix -tsin varies irregularly at times with -chin, and it sometimes attracts stress, even though it may be the final syllable, rather than the penultimate as expected by the regular stress rule.

Chapter 3

Grammatical Categories and Morphology

3.0. Introduction  
	
	In this chapter the grammatical categories, or parts of speech, and their morphology are described.  In some ways these aspects of Pipil are prerequisites to an understanding of the syntactic constructions considered in the next chapter.  Both this chapter and the next in general follow Langacker's (1977) order of presentation.
	
	3.1. Nouns.  Pipil nouns are found as simple noun roots, as compounds composed of two or more roots, or as derived forms from other categories, e.g. from verbs by means of nominalizing suffixes.  This section is dedicated to a description of the morphology of nouns.

	3.1.1. Absolutives.  In Pipil a suffix called the 'absolutive' occurs with most noun roots when these appear without other affixes.  Thus, for example, the 'absolutive' occurs with otherwise bare nouns, as in siwa:-t "woman", where -t is the  'absolutive' suffix, but not with the noun root when it occurs in composition with another element, e.g. nu-siwa:w "my wife", siwa:-pil "girl", siwa:-pah "ciguapate (a medicinal plant, literally 'woman medicine')"; ulu-t "corncob", nu-ulu "my corncob"; etc.

	The absolutive has several allomorphs.  These are:

	(1) -t:  with noun roots which end in a vowel, e.g.:
	a:ka-t		reed, cane		malaka-t	spindle
	a:-t		water			masa:-t		deer              
	a:ma-t		amate tree		maxta-t	breechclout
	atime-t		louse			meka-t		vine, sting
	a:waka-t	avocado		meta-t		metate (quern)
	chikiwi-t	basket			mu:yu-t	fly
	chi:la-t		chilate			naka-t		meat
	eheka-t		wind			pa:pa:lu-t  	butterfly 
	elu-t		roasting ear 		peta-t		mat
	e:-t		bean			saka-t		grass
	ilwi-t		fiesta			suki-t		clay
	ista-t		salt			ta:ka-t		man
	iswa-t		leaf			teki-t		work
	kakawa-t	cacao			tekulu-t	owl
	ku:lu-t		scorpion		tekuma-t	bottle gourd
	ku:mi-t		jug, pot		te-t		stone
	kune:-t		child			tsi:ka-t		ant
	kuska-t		necklace		u:mi-t		bone
	ku:wa-t	snake			ustu-t		cave, ravine
	kwawi-t	tree			xu:chi-t	flower

	(2) -ti: occurs with noun roots which end in a consonant other than l.  This allomorph occurs mostly with monosyllabic noun roots, but some polysyllabic ones also take it. A few examples are:

	es-ti		blood			sah-ti		wax
	ich-ti		century plant, string  	sin-ti		maize 
	kak-ti		sandal			tapak-ti  	the wash
	kaltsun-ti 	beam (house pole)	teksisti  	egg
	ku:pa:n-ti 	measure of firewood	tepus-ti  	metal
	kus-ti		necklace, bead		tew-ti		dust
	kwa:ch-ti  	rag, cloth		tix-ti		dough
	me:ts-ti	moon			tu:h-ti		hawk
	mix-ti		cloud			uh-ti		road
	mu:n-ti		boyfriend, son-in-law  kwetax-ti 	leather
	nek-ti		sweet(s), candy	tuch-ti		rabbit
	nex-ti		ash(es)			kwix-ti		hawk
	pah-ti		medicine

	(3) -in:  is a non-productive and somewhat rare allomorph which occurs principally with terms for small animals and a few other nouns, hence it is occasionally called the "varmint" class.  This allomorph, however, is not lost when the noun occurs with a prefix, e.g. nu-mich-in "my fish", but it is absent from compounds:

	chapulin	"grasshopper"   	chapul-ehtapal 	"chapulaltapa" 
						("grassphopper-wing tree")
	kapulin		"chokecherry"		kapul-a:ma-t 		"capulamate" (tree)  
	tu:lin 	"cattails, reeds"		tul-ti-k 		"yellow"

Some other examples of the -in variant are:
	a:xa:l-in  	sand crab		mich-in	fish
	a:xi:l-in  	small snail		sayul-in  	gnat
	chakal-in	shrimp			su:l-in		quail
	kimich-in  	mouse			kwil-in		worm
	ma:pach-in 	raccoon		tekp-in		flea   
	ma:tal-in  	matalin (plant) 	wa:x-in	guaje (tree)
						xupil-in  	cricket 
	
	It should also be mentioned that there exists evidence of an archaic variant of the -in allomorph in the form of -an after k-, as in: tsina:kan "bat", texkan "tick".
	(4) Ø: is the allomorph which occurs a) with roots which end in -l, b) with many polysyllabic roots which end in a consonant, including all that end in h, c) with Spanish loans, regardless of whether they end in a consonant or a vowel, and d) with nouns derived from verbs with the -ni 'agent' suffix.  Some examples are:

	a) with -l	  		b) polysyllabic forms ending in -C
	chi:l		chili pepper	a:mux		moss      
	ihyal		fart		a:na:wak	breeze
	atu:l		atole		a:yekuh	bean sp.		
	a:xa:l		sand		ayuh		squash sp.
	kal		house		ayuwach	squash seed
	ku:ketspal  	iguana		chan		house
	kumal		griddle		chan		amaranth(?)
	kuyul		coyol palm	kamuh		sweet potato
	kwa:tapal   	forehead	ku:nakas	mushroom
	mekapal	tumpline	kutu:x		agouti
	mi:l		milpa		patach		sea shell
	pinu:l		pinol		xi:kuh		wasp
	wahkal		gourd bowl	ukich		male
	tsukul		bump, lump	uhux		ujuxte tree
	tsa:wal		spider web
	tu:nal		sun		tachalis	sight
	taxkal		rigua		tsikuwas	comb
	tawiyal		maize		uchpa:nwas	broom
	tape:wil	game (hunt)
	tamal		tortilla		takwatsin	opossum
	ta:l		land, earth
	takwal		food
	tahsul		garbage
	sita:l		star
	pu:lul		mud
	xahkal		hut
	xi:kal		gourd bowl

	c) Spanish loans            	d) forms in -ni
	kawayu	horse	  	atsakwani	azacuan bird
	me:sah		table	  	ehkuni		foreigner
	mi:sah		Mass	  	mikini		dead person
	pa:guh		pay, salary
	pa:xah		sash
	pe:lu		dog
	pe:suh		colón (money)
	sala		pants, trousers
	
	With a few roots the absolutive suffix is not dropped when possessive pronominal prefixes are present.  These examples are:
	-a:pan-ti	irrigated field
	-a:wa-t		bud
	-chankwita-t   	corn candy
	-kal-tsun-ti   	beam, roof pole
	-tuch-ti		rabbit
	-i(t)sti-t	(finger)nail         
	These are all exceptional in not dropping the absolutive under possession.  In some cases it may be assumed that the old absolutive has become frozen as part of the root, e.g.  -a:panti; others may be influenced by the fact that local Spanish has borrowed the Pipil form with some indication of the absolutive in the borrowed form, which in turn may have come to influence the native Pipil form to maintain a root more similar to the Spanish version, e.g. -awa-t is in Spanish "aguate", -kal-tsun-ti is "calsonte".  There are also two exceptions with  -ti after a root-final -l:  (SD) ahsi:l-ti "nit (louse egg)" (but (C) ahsi:l) and a:wil-ti "toy" (in both dialects).  However, in the latter word, the  -ti is not dropped when it occurs with possessive pronominal prefixes, and for that reason it is perhaps better to consider the -ti to be frozen as part of the root itself.

	3.1.2. Possession.  Nouns take the 'possessive pronominal' prefixes:

	Cuisnahuat		Santo Domingo de Guzmán
	nu-			nu-	'my'
	mu-			mu-	'your (singular)'
	i-			i-	'his', 'her', 'its'
	tu-			tu-	'our'	                            
	anmu-			amu-	'your (plural)'
	in-			in-	'their'

As, for example, in:
	Cuisnahuat		Santo Domingo de Guzmán
	nu-chi:l		nu-chi:l	"my chili pepper"	
	mu-chi:l		mu-chi:l	"your chili pepper"
	i-chi:l			i-chi:l		"his/her chili pepper"	
	tu-chi:l			tu-chi:l		"our chili pepper"
	anmu-chi:l		amu-chi:l	"your (pl.) chili pepper"	
	in-chi:l			in-chi:l		"their chili pepper"

	When a noun bears one of these possessive prefixes, it does not carry the absolutive suffix, as noted above, but in certain circumstances it takes a possessive suffix.  That is, noun roots which end in -a, -e, or -i generally take the suffix -w; those which have root-final -u or a consonant do not have it.  This is illustrated in the following examples; the hyphen (-) indicates that the noun bears some prefix, in this case one of the possessive pronominal prefixes which co-occur with the possessive suffix -w:
	-a:ka-w	reed
	-a:ka-peta-w	figured mat
	-a:ma-w	amate (fig tree sp.)
	-a:-w		water	
	-a:waka-w	avocado
	-chan-ta:ka-w  person from one's own town
	-chi:la-w	chilate (a corn drink)
	-chukula-w	chocolate
	-e:-w		bean
	-icha-w	cotton
	-ilwi-w		fiesta (ceremomy)
	-ista-w		salt	
	-i:x-saka-w	rice
	-kili-w		chipilin (plant)
	-kune:-w	child
	-malaka-w	spindle		
	-masa:-w	deer
	-maxta-w	breechclout, loincloth
	-meka-w	string, cord, rope
	-naka-w	meat
	-sa:wa-w	pimple, boil
	-siwa:-w	wife, woman
	-suki-w	clay	
	-ta:ka-w	husband, man
	-teki-w		work
	-te:ntsi:ka-w 	chin
	-te-w		stone, rock
	-ti:-w		fire
	-tuma-w	tomato
	-uhta-w	cane sp.
	-u:mi-w	bone		
	-xu:chi-w	flower
	
	It is to be recalled that some noun roots lose their final vowel when they take a possessive prefix.  Possessed they no longer bear the absolutive suffix, which, if present would keep the vowel from occurring in final position.  A few examples are:

	-atin		louse		cf. atime-t
	-chikiw	basket		cf. chikiwi-t
	-kakaw		cacao		cf. kakawa-t
	-kax		bowl		cf. kaxi-t
	-ku:n		jug, pot	cf. ku:mi-t
	-kuyan		pig		cf. kuyame-t
	-kwaw		tree, wood	cf. kwawi-t
	-met		metate (quern)	cf. meta-t
	-pet		mat		cf. peta-t
	-tekun		bottle gourd  	cf. tekuma-t   	
	
	Some other examples which lack -w are the following with either a final u or consonant:

	-a:chiyu	bixa (achiote)
	-cha:luku	guava
	-e:lu		roasting ear
	-exu		green beans, string beans
	-ulu		corncob
	-xi:lu		ear of green corn
	-xu:chu (SD)	flower
	-xuku		hogplum (jocote)
	-a:xi:x		urine
	-ich		string, fiber
	-kak		sandal
	-kamuh	cassava, sweet potato
	-nek		sweet(s), candy
	-pah		medicine
	-sah		wax
	-sin		maize
	-teksis		egg
	-tenex		lime(stone)
	-tix		corn dough
	-ta:l		land, earth
	-tamal		tortilla
	-chi:l		chili pepper
	-kal		house
	-ma:pipil	fingers
	-lala		orange (Spanish loanword)	

	There is also another possessive suffix, -yu, which means 'intimate (sometimes called 'inalienable') possession'.  Forms with this suffix are inherently more closely connected to, or "intimate" with the possessor, often an inalienable part thereof.  It is best understood by seeing it in contrast with the -w possessive suffix which suggests no particularly close association between the noun and its possessor.  Compare, then, for example, nu-naka-w "my meat" (to eat, but not part of my body) with nu-naka-yu "my flesh" (i.e. meat that is part of my body); i-u:mi-w "his bone" (for chewing, not part of his body) with i-u:mi-yu "his bone" (in his body).  Some examples of 'intimate possession' with the -yu suffix are:

	-bainah-yu		pod, sheath, scabbard
	-es-yu			blood
	-e:wa-yu		skin
	-ikx-u:mi-yu		shin bone
	-iswa-yu		leaf
	-a:-yu			juice, liquid (from "water")
	-i:x-kal(i)-yu		eyebrow
	-i:x-tsuhtsun-yu  	eyelash
	-i:x-tsukul-yu		knot
	-kahah-yu		coffin (from Spanish caja "box")
	-kakax-yu		animal skeleton
	-kodoh-yu		elbow
	-ko:lah-yu		tail
	-kwe:n-yu		blanket
	-kwerdah-yu		cord
	-ma:mis-yu		elbow
	-mante:ka-yu		lard, grease
	-naka-yu		flesh
	-nelwa-yu		root
	-nex-yu ti-t		fire's ash(es)
	-paletah-yu		hip
	-plantiyah-yu		sole of foot
	-rayis-yu		root
	-se:bu-yu		tallow, grease
	-se:rah-yu		wax
	-sombrah-yu		shadow (of someone)
	-takon-yu		heel
	-te:ku-yu		owner
	-tripah-yu		intestines
	-tsin-bankuh-yu	tailbone
	-uhmi-yu		feather
	
	The forms showing intimate possession with -yu generally are body parts, plant parts, parts of animals, or other things closely associated with the possessor.  It is worth noting that so-called "inalienable" possession is a feature common to all Mesoamerican Indian languages, as well as many others outside this linguistic area.  The label "inalienable" is generally employed in reference to a class of nouns which typically do not occur without possessive affixes.  These nouns characteristically belong to the semantic classes of body parts (hence the name "inalienable") and kinship terms (intimately associated with the possessor, but not so inalienable).  Pipil, of course, conforms to this pattern.

	3.1.2.1. Plural possession.  Some plural forms take the suffix -wan, the plural of -w, when they are possessed.  A few cases are:

	-manuh-wan				brothers
	-miyak-wan				family
	-mu:n-wan				brothers-in-law
	-pila-wan				sons, boys
	-pi:pi-wan				elder sisters, aunts
	-sih-siwa:-wan				wives, women
	-te:lpu:ch-wan				sons

	This suffix reflects 'intimate' (inalienable) possession, given that it occurs only with kinship or closely related terms.
	The plural of some possessed forms is expressed by reduplicating the possessive pronominal prefix, e.g. nuh-nu-chi:l "my chili peppers" (see section 3.1.4 for details).  
	For larger possessive constructions, see section 4.7 (cf. also, section 3.2.4).  	

	3.1.3. Other nominal suffixes.
	3.1.3.1. -pan.  The locative suffix -pan "on, upon, near" (always in relation to the surface of something) is not productive, but is found in the following forms: 

	a:-pan			river				(a:- "water")
	-el-pan			chest, breast			(-el- 'inside', "stomach")
	ikxi-pan		on foot				(ikxi "foot")
	i-pan			behind				(i- 'his, her, its')
	i:x-pan			before, in front of		(i:x- "eye")
	i:x-te:m-pan 		in front of someone		(cf. -te:mpan "beside")
	mets-pan		lap, bosom			(mets- "leg")
	ta-te:m-pan  		at the edge of, beside		(cf. -te:m-pan "beside")
	-te:m-pan		at the edge of, beside		(te:n "mouth)
	ti:-pan			behind				(cf. ta- + i-pan "behind")
	t(i)yu:-pan  		church				(t(i)yu:(h)- "holy")
	tsum-pan		upon, on top of		(tsun- "head")
	-uh-pan		road				(uh- "road")
	xu:-pan		"winter" (rainy season)	(xuxuwik "green" (?))		
	
	3.1.3.2. -tan.  The locative suffix -tan means approximately "in, among, under, near, next to".  Historically it is closely connected with -tani "under, beneath, below".  It is also not productive.  Some examples are:
	ka:ka:lu:-tan  		San Julián (place name)	(cf. CN cacalo-tl "crow")
	koh-tan (SD)  	 	forest, woods	 		(kwawi- "tree")	
	    ku(:)h-tan (C)  	    woods
	mik-tan		deep				(miki "to die")
	tuska-tan		nook, cranny			(cf. tuskak "throat")	
	tsapu-tan		Ishuatán (place name)		(tsapu- "zapote")
	a:-mis-tan		Ojo de Gato (place name)  	(a:- "water", mis- "cat")
	-nakas-tan		beside				(-nakas "ear")	

	3.1.3.3. -k / -ku.  There is another nonproductive locative suffix, -k after a vowel and -ku after a consonant, which basically means "in".  The examples are:

	a:na:wa-k		breeze			(a:- "water" + na:wak "near")
	-el-ixku		stomach		(el- 'inside' + i:xku "sign")
	ihti-k			in, inside		(ihti- "belly")
	i:x-ku			boundary marker	(i:x- "eye")
	i:x-ta:wa-k		meadow,		(i:x- "eye", 'face')
	k-ahku(wi)-k  		up, to the north	(ahku  "above, on high")
	-na:wa-k		near
	na:wisalku		Nahuizalco		(cf. na:wi- "four")
	tu:nal-ku		summer, dry season	(tu:nal "sun")	

	3.1.3.4. -ta(:)l.  Pipil has a suffix which seems to be derived from the root ta:l "land": its basic meaning seems to be "place of many" of the things named by the noun root to which it is attached.  It corresponds to the Spanish suffix -al, -ar (e.g. platanal "plantain grove" (cf. plátano "plantain"), pinal "pine grove" (cf. pino "pine"), frijolar "bean patch" (cf. frijol "bean"), carrizal "canebrake" (cf. carrizo "cane, reed"), cafetal "coffee orchard", etc.  It is possible that the meaning and perhaps even the origin of this suffix has been influenced by this Spanish case, given that other Nahua varieties are not known to have such an ending.  Forms with this suffix are:

	a:ka-tal		canebrake, place of reeds		(a:ka- "reed")
	a:ma-tal	many amate trees/paper		(a:ma- "amate")
	e:-tal		bean patch, bean field			(e:- "bean")
	saka-tal	pasture					(saka- "grass")
	te-ta:l,		rocky place				(te- "stone")
	     tetal
	tewti-ta:l 	dusty ground				(tew-ti "dust")       
	uku-tal		pine grove				(uku- "pine", cf. Sp. ocotal)
	u:wa-tal	canebrake, uncleared land 		(u:wa- "cane", Sp. huatal)
	wa:k-ta:l  	dry ground				(wa(:)ki "dry")

	3.1.3.5. -ka.  Pipil has some nouns which are derived from verbs or adjectives by means of the suffix -ka.  In other varieties of Nahua this suffix, in addition to being a nominalizer, is related to the 'perfect' and the 'remote past'.  Nevertheless, Pipil has no 'remote past' and its 'perfect' forms do not include -ka.  Noun roots that take this suffix undergo vowel-loss (see section 2.2, rule 1).  The following show it:

	cha:mah-ka		waist		(cha:mawak  "thick")
	i:xpil-ka   		squatting     	(i:xpilua "to sqat")
	mulin-ka		sprout        	(mulu:ni "to puff up")
	-pat-ka			change        	(pata "to change")
	pepetska    		silver fish	(cf. pets-tik "smooth")
	pu:pu:l-ka  		dregs		(pu:su:l "posol")	        
	tuhtuk-ka 		brooding hen  	(tu:ka "to bury" (?))				tumah-ka  		fat (n.)		(tuma:wak "fat" (Adj.))
	tsah-ka     		lid		(tsakwa "to close")
	yaman-ka    		lukewarm	(yama:nik "bland")

	Another very restricted suffix, which appears to be related to this -ka, is the locative ending -kan.  The few examples are:

	ta-we:y-kan		country(side) 		(cf. we:y "big")
	ta-ne:s-kan  		dawn, clearing 	(cf. ne:si "to appear")
	yeh-kan      		alone, to the right 	(ye:k "good" (?))

	3.1.3.6. -ni.  The 'agentive' suffix -ni derives nouns from verbs with the meaning of "one who does the action of the verb".  Some examples are:

	atsakwa-ni 		azacuan bird		(a:- "water" + tsakwa "to cover"; 									literally"water-coverer"
	ehku-ni		ladino, foreigner	(ehku- "to arrive")
	kuchi-ni		sleepy-head		(kuchi- "to sleep")
	kukuya-ni		sick person		(kukuya- "to get sick")
	ma:wiltiaya-ni 	playful person 		(m-a:wiltia "to play")				miki-ni			dead person		(miki- "to die")
	tacha-ni		lizard sp.		(ta-chiya- "to look")
	takwi:ka-ni		singer			(takwi:ka- "to sing")
	tapahtiya-ni		curer			(ta-pah-tia "to cure")
	tapa:ka-ni		washer woman	(ta-pa:ka- "to wash")
	tatu:ka-ni		planter, sower 		(ta-tu:ka- "to plant")
	tatsa:wa-ni		weaver			(ta-tsa:wa- "to weave")

	3.1.3.7. -s  (-lis, -wis, -was).  The -s suffix also derives nouns from verbs, nouns which reflect the activity of the verb.  It is no longer productive, and Pipil has few examples:
 
	tacha-li-s		appearance  		(ta-chiya "to look")
	yuyumuka-li-s		foot fungus 		(yuyumuka "to itch")
	kuku-li-s		sickness		(kuku-ya  "to get sick")
	a:xa:l-uwa-s		whetstone		(cf. a:xa:l "sand")
	ku:-panu-wa-s		bridge			(ku:- 'wood' + panu- "to pass")
	kwahsiwi-s		gumption					
	taxwi:-s		pimple			(ta- + ixwi "to fill")
	tepu:na-wa-s		drum			(cf. pu:ni "to burst" ?)
	tsi:ku-wa-s		comb			(tsikwastia "to comb")
	uchpa:n-wa-s		broom			((u)chpa:na "to sweep")

	3.1.3.8. -tsin.  The suffix -tsin is productive and has a 'diminutive' or 'reverential' function.  In some words this suffix bears the stress even though it may not be the penultimate syllable.  Also, it is pronounced at times as -chin instead of the expected -tsin.  In plural forms it is reduplicated, tsintsin in many of the dialects, but -tsitsin in Cuisnahuat.  Some examples are:

	a:yu:-tsin		turtle
	cha:kwah-tsin		storage hook
	chapa-chin		short(y)		mistun-tsín		kitten
	chihchipi:n-tsín  	chichipince		muluk-tsin		feline sp.
	ichtaka-tsin		hidden			mu:yu-tsín		small gnat 
	iknu-tsin		orphan			na:na:wa-tsin 		El Chimpe
	ihyu:mik-tsin		"El Duende"		na:n-tsin		mother
	i:xpupuyu:-tsin	cutworm		nek-tsin		anteater
	i:xkipi-tsin		firefly			pa:pa:lu-tsin 		butterfly
	ka:mah-tsin		cradle			perikuh-chín  		parrekeet
	kamanan-tsin		dimples		pil-tsín			boy, son
	ku:kulu-tsin		dove sp.		pipil-tsin		little boy
	kune:-tsin		baby			pi:piyah-tsin 		dragonfly
	ku:pitsak-tsin		skinny			se:-chín		unique
	ku:talalah-tsin		lizard sp.		swa:beh-chín  		whisper
	tah-tsin			sir
	ku:ti-tsin		fire			takwatsin		opossum
	tuma-tsin		small tomato 
	kwikwil-tsin		motley			tu-na:n-tsin  		Virgin Mary
	kwitawululuh-tsin 	scarab			tu-tah-tsin		Jesus Christ
	lamah-tsin		old woman		tsapa-tsin		short(y)
	liklik-tsin		small hawk		ustu-tsin		bobcat
	masa:-tsin		little deer		wi:lu-tsín		small bird
	ma:ta-tsin		small net		xu:lu-tsin		baby
	ma:-tsi-tsin		crab's feet		xu:re:-tsín		old man

	3.1.3.9. -pil.  Pipil has another 'diminutive' suffix, -pil, which is not productive and occurs with few nouns.  Its plural is -pipil in Cuisnahuat and -pilpil in other locations. The examples are:

	iknu-pil	orphan
	-kwita-pil	tail (cf. kwita-t  "excrement")
	-nenepil	tongue
	siwa:-pil	girl (cf. siwa:-t "woman")
	
	3.1.3.10. -l 'passive nominalization'.  Many nouns are derived from passive verbs with the suffix -l resulting in passive nominalizations, for example ta-kwa-l "food", from ta-kwa "to eat" + -l 'passive nominalization'; or ta-xka-l "rigua, tortilla", from ta- 'something' + (i)xka "to roast", literally "something roasted".  Note that frequently nouns derived from verbs bear ta- 'unspecified object' (see section 3.3.4.4.).  For more details on passivization, see section 3.8.3.
	3.1.4. 'Plural'.  Pluralization of nouns in Pipil is somewhat complicated not only by the fact that there are several different ways to form the plural, but also because some nouns take a combination of plural markers.  The most common elements in plural formations are reduplication (see below) and the suffix -t 'plural', also found in plural verb forms.  Core Nahua has changed this -t 'plural' to -h or -?; thus Pipil is conservative in maintaining this trait.  The various plural markers are now taken up individually.

	(1) -ket is the most restricted plural marker, limited to a very few human nouns:

		lamat-ket,		old women								     lah-lamat-ket
		sih-siwa:t-ket		women
		xuh-xu:ret-ket	  	old men
		ukich-ket		males, men, husbands
	(2)  -me-t occurs with a larger, though still very limited number of nouns; these are also, with few exceptions, 'human' nouns:

	ahsi:l-met			nits
	ah-alma-met			souls
	ah-alwa:si:l-met		constables, policemen
	ehkuni-met			ladinos
	lah-lamah-tsi-tsin-met,  	little old women 
	      lah-lamah-chi-chin-met
	-ma:n-met			brothers
	nah-na:n-met			mothers
	peh-pe:lu-met			dogs
	pipil-met			boys
	tah-ta:ka-met			men
	tixkwi-met			lazy persons
	tsih-tsinnanats-met		women with large buttocks
	uh-ukich-met			males, men
	xuh-xu:lu-met			babies
	
	(3)  -wan, as indicated above (31.2.1), is the plural of w 'possession' and is limited to a few kinship terms (which are in character 'intimately' possessed).

	(4)  -tsi(n)tsin (see section 3.1.3.8.) is the plural of the suffix -tsin 'diminutive' or 'reverential'. 

	(5)  -pi(l)pil (see section 3.1.3.9.) is the plural of the other 'diminutive'suffix.

	(6)  (C)Vh - reduplication is the most frequent and productive plural formation. In it, the first consonant(s), if present, and vowel are reduplicated with h added, e.g. (Co)Vh-(Co)V..., as in these examples:

	ah-a:chah		axes			mah-ma:pacahin	raccoon      
	ah-a:kapetat		figured mats 		mah-masa:t		deer         
	ah-a:kat		reeds, cane  		meh-mekapal		tumplines    
	ah-ari:tas		earrings		meh-metat		metate        
	ah-a:wakat		avocados		mih-michin		fish
	ah-ayuh		squash sp.   		mih-mi:l		milpas
	bweh-bweyes		oxen			muh-mu:lah		mules   
	chah-chakalin  	shrimp			pah-pa:leh		priests     
	chan-chapulin  	grasshoppers 		pah-pa:pa:lut		butterflies
	chih-chi:chih  		breasts			peh-petat		mat
	chih-chikiwit 	 	baskets			puh-pu:chut		cieba trees
	chih-chi:l		chilis			puh-pula		plantains
	eh-e:lut		ears of corn 		rah-rayis		roots
	eh-e:t			beans			sah-sakat		grass stalks
	ih-ilwit			fiestas			sih-sinti		ears of corn     
	ih-iswat		leaves			sih-si:tal		stars
	kah-ka:bra		goats			tah-takwatsin		opossums 
	kah-kakawat		cacaos			tah-tamal		tortillas
	kah-kal			houses			teh-teha		tiles
	kah-ka:rgah		loads			teh-tekpin		fleas
	kih-kimichin   		mice			teh-tekumat		bottlegourds
	koh-kohtan		forests			teh-tepe:t		mountains
	kuh-ku:ketspal 	iguanas		tih-tiseras		scissors
	kuh-ku:mit		jugs, pots		tih-tihlan		chickens
	kuh-kusma		vultures		tyuh-tyu(:)pan  	churches
	kuh-ku:wat		snakes			tuh-tukat		spiders
	kuh-kuyamet		pigs			tuh-turuh		bulls, cows
	kuh-kuyu:t		coyotes		tsih-tsi:kat		ants
	kwah-kwawit		trees			tsih-tsina:kan  		bats
	kweh-kwetes		rockets			uh-uchpa:nwas	brooms
	kwih-kwilin		worms			uh-uhli			rubber trees 
	lah-lala			oranges		uh-uhti			roads
	lih-likliktsin 		small hawks  		xah-xahkal		shacks, huts

	(7)  Reduplicated possessive pronominal prefixes. At times possessed plural nouns show reduplication, not as expected on the root, but of the possessive prefix. This is most common with monosyllabic nouns, but is not limited to them.  Some examples are:
	nuh-nu-chi:l 		my chilis    		nuh-nu-ma:taxkal 	my palms
	nuh-nu-kxi		my feet      		nuh-nu-ku:ts     	my legs
	muh-mu-kxi		your feet    		ih-i-tan         		her teeth
	nuh-nu-na:n  		my mothers		     or i-tah-tan
	nuh-nu-mey		my hands     		tuh-tu-kumal     	our griddles
	ih-i-mey		his hands		     or tu-kuh-kumal

The more usual possessed plural nouns have reduplication on the noun root, e.g.:
	i-eh-ehtapal		its wings
	i-ih-i:x		 	his eyes
	i-nah-nakas		her ears
	i-kah-kamak		his cheeks

It should be noted that adjectives and verbs may also be reduplicated (see sections 3.6.6 and 3.7.5).

	Other aspects of nouns and noun phrases are treated in the following chapter.  For example, for the incorporation of noun objects into the verb, see section 4.13.3.

3.2. Pronouns
	
	3.2.1. Independent pronouns.  The full or independent pronouns are optional, given that in any case subject and object pronominal affixes are required with the verb. The independent pronouns are: 
	
	naha			I
	taha			you (singular)
	yaha			he/she/it
	tehemet		we
	amehemet (SD),
	an-ehemet (C)  	you (plural)
	yehemet		they

In normal speech these may optionally appear in an abbreviated form, if they bear no particular emphasis, e.g.:

	na, nah			I
	ta, tah			you (singular)
	ya, yah			he/she/it
	te(:)met	      	 we
	ame(:)t,
	an-e(:)met           	you (plural)							ye(:)met		they	

	In actual use, the abbreviated singular forms are much more frequent that the plurals.
	
	3.2.2. Pronominal subject affixes. Verbs take pronominal affixes which either indicates the pronominal subject (if no independent subject pronouns, nouns, or noun phrases occur) or mark a cross-reference to independent subjects (see section 3.7.4). These prefixes co-occur with the plural suffix -t on the verb when the subject is a plural person. The subject pronominal affixes, then, are:

	ni-			I
	ti-			you (singular)
	Ø-			he/she/it     
	ti- ... -t  		we
	an- ... -t  		you (plural) (am- before vowels)					Ø-  ... -t 		they
	    
A few examples are:

	ni-panu		I pass, cross
	ti-panu			you pass
	panu			he passes
	ti-panu-t		we pass
	an-panu-t		you (pl.) pass (ampanut)
	panu-t			they pass	    
	ni-ahsi-k		I arrived
	ti-kuch-ki  		you slept
	se:wi-k			it went out
	ti-nemi-t		we are
	ti-nen-ke-t 		we were 
	an-weli-t		you (pl.) can
	an-ki:s-tiwi-t 		you (pl.) have left 							wets-ke-t		they fell
	tehku-ke-t  		they climbed

These prefixes lose the final vowel before the 'directional' morpheme (w)al-, i.e. appearing as n- and t- (see sections 2.2 and 3.7.6.1).

	3.2.2.1. Pronominal copula.  There is an equational construction in which a pronominal subject has a noun or adjective as complement which is formed by merely affixing these pronominal subject morphemes to the complement.  Its form and function are best grasped from the following examples:

	ni-ta:kat			I am a man
	ti-ta:kat			you are a man
	taha ti-mayordomoh		you are a steward (A-32)
	an-ehemet an-nu-a:migitus	you  are  my  little friends (R-52) 
	ni-tuma:wak			I am fat
	ni-tsumpe:suh			I am bald
	taha tesu ti-lionah		you are not Leonarda (S-12)

(The letter-number code refers to the texts of chapter 7, where details are given.)
See also the verb morphology (section 3.7.4).  For examples with the 'directional' morpheme, cf. section 2.2.

	3.2.3. Pronominal object prefixes.  Transitive verbs normally bear also a prefix which references the object.  These pronominal object prefixes can cross reference an independent object pronoun, noun, or noun phrase (usually with a third person prefix) or they can signal the object directly if it is pronominal.  These prefixes are:

	-nech-		me
	-mits-		you (singular)
	-k(i)-		him/her/it
	-tech-		us
	-mitsin-	you (plural)
	-(k)in-		them

	The prefix -(k)in "them" has the k when not preceded by another prefix or when a vowel precedes it.  The k(i)-, the most frequent, loses the vowel when preceded or followed by another vowel, but it keeps its i before the elements -ah- and -el (see section 2.2).  These function most frequently as direct objects, but also serve to indicate indirect objects.  (For more details concerning their form, function, and what happens when direct and indirect objects co-occur, see section 4.1.7).  Some examples are:
     
	ni-k-ida-k		I saw it
	ni-k-neki		I want it
	ki-neki			he wants it
	ti-nech-ita-k		you saw me
	ni-mits-ita-k		I saw you
	ti-mitsin-ita-ke-t	we saw you (pl.)
	tech-ita-ke-t		they saw us
	ni-kin-ita-k		I saw them

There are other elements which can occupy the place of these object prefixes, e.g. mu- 'reflexive' and ta- 'unspecified object'.  When the verb bears one of these other object-like affixes, the object pronominal prefixes do not appear (cf. section 3.7.4.).

	3.2.4. Possessive pronominal prefixes.  The prefixes of pronominal possession are:

	nu-		my
	mu-		your (singular)
	i-		his/her/its
	tu-		our
	anmu-		your (plural)
	in-		their

For details, see noun morphology, section 3.1.2.
	
3.2.5. Indefinite pronouns.  The indefinite pronouns are:

	ahakah (SD)		someone, somebody
	kanah			elsewhere, somewhere
				(with negative "nowhere") 
	ka:kah			someone
	su a:kah		no one, nobody
	tesu katka		nothing
	su kanah		nowhere, there is/are not
	su datka (C)		nothing
	te: datka (SD)		nothing

3.3. Articles and demonstratives
	
	3.3.1. Articles.  The Pipil definite and indefinite articles correspond roughly in meaning and function to those of Spanish, although they act a bit more like demonstratives.  That is, these articles are slightly less obligatory than those of Spanish or English, and when they are used, they have slightly more demonstrative force.  Thus ne ta:ka-t might be translated equally well as "the man" or "that man" on many occasions.  These are:

	ne		the
	se:		a/an (a certain)

In normal speech ne is frequently pronounced ni and se: is se without vowel length.

	3.3.2. Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives.  The following function as demonstrative pronouns when they occur independently (as in ini ga:lá:n "this (one) is pretty") and as demonstrative adjectives when they appear with nouns (e.g. ini siwa:pil ga:la:n(a) "this girl is pretty").  The forms are:

	ini			this (proximate, immediate)
	uni			that (distal, non-immediate)
	ne:ne: (C)		that (more emphatic, less frequent)
	yahane (SD)		that (distal, non-immediate)
	yahini (SD)		this (proximate, immediate)
	yahuni (SD)		that (distal, non-immediate)

It will be noted that Santo Domingo de Guzmán has some demonstratives composed of others compounded with yaha 'third person singular pronoun': yahane appears to be from yaha + ne: "there"/'that'; yahini from yaha + ini; yahuni from yaha + uni.

	3.3.3. Demonstrative adverbs.  The demonstrative adverbs are of location (L), time (T), purpose (P), and manner (M).  They are:

	kanah (L)		elsewhere, somewhere
	ikuni (L)		(over) there (ik-uni)
	ne: (L)			there
	ni:kan (L)		here
	nu:hme (L)		everywhere
	uni-san (L)		right here, right there
	a:n (T)			now
	a:xa:n (T)		now, today
	ikman (T)		long ago, anciently (ik-man)
	ikuka (T)		then (ik-uk-a)
	se:man (T)		now (se:-man)
	se:mpa (T,M)		again (se:n-pa)
	se-pa, 
	se-paya (T,M)  	again (se: pa(ya)) 						siyuhti (T,M)		once
	te: ke:man (T)		never
	xa:n (T)		later, after
	ha-ika (P)		therefore (-ik-a)
	ya-ika (P)
	ika (P)			therefore (ik-a)
	kieneh (M)		thus, in this way
	kiuni (M)		thus, in this way
	kenemeh (M)		thus, in this way
	sehse: ika (M)		one-by-one (seh-se: ik-a)
				(Cf. section 3.10.)

3.4. Quantifiers  
	Quantifiers and numerals go before the nouns they modify.  Pipil quantifiers are:

	achi		little, few
	achtu		first
	anka		how much?
	chupi		a little
	ke:ski		how much?
	miyak		many, much
	muchi		all, whole, entire

Some other, associated forms are:
		
	se:mpa			once
	se-pa, se-paya		again
	se maya se:		only once
	se:san			only onscar 
	tiki			barely, hardly, scarcely

3.4.1. Numerals.  The numbers and some associated forms are:

	se:		one
	se:n		one, together
	u:me		two
	ye:y		three
	na:wi		four
	ma:kwil	five
	chikwasin	six
	mahtakti	ten
	sehse: ika	one-by-one
	uhu:me		both (uh-ume)
	yehye:y	three each
	se:mpuwal	"five" (a group of things)
	tsunti
	     se:  tsunti	20 handfuls (of corn), 100 ears of corn, one 
			sonte (a measure of corn)
	     6 tsunti	a small Spanish bushel
	     12 tsunti	a large Spanish bushel
	se:san		only one
For the other numbers, Spanish forms are used.

3.5. Locatives 
	
Pipil locatives include independent prepositions and 'relational nouns'. 
	
3.5.1. Independent prepositions.  The prepositions which occur without additional morphology to indicate the location of the head noun of the prepositional phrase are:
		
	ka		in, at, to
	katani		below, under (ka-tani)
	pak		on, upon, over, on top of
	pak kal		on top of the house
	pak me:sah	on the table
	pal		for
	tik		in, into, inside
	ti:pan		behind, in back of (ta-ipan)
	wan		with (cf. -wan)
	chan		at (someone's house)

The following locative prepositions are in origin Spanish loanwords:

	de		from, of (infrequently used)
	axta		until, to, up to
	axta ni:kan	to the present, to here 
	huntik          	near, next to (from Sp. junto + -ti-k 'adj.')

	3.5.2. Relational nouns.  Locatives called 'relational nouns' by Mesoamerican linguists bear possessive pronominal prefixes on what is in origin and still in form a noun root; that is, these locatives look like possessed nouns.  This trait is found in nearly all the Indian languages of Mesoamerica.  The constructions are illustrated here in the paradigms for -wan "with" and (i)hpak "on":

	nu-wan     	with me            	nu-hpak on me
	mu-wan    	with you (sg.)     	mu-hpak on you (sg.
	i-wan      	with him/her/it    	(y)-ihpak on him/her/it 				tu-wan     	with us            	tu-hpak on us 				
	anmu-wan   	with you (pl.)     	anmu-hpak on you (pl.) 				in-wan     	with them 

Some 'relational nouns' are:
	
	-ihtik		inside (-ihti-k)
	-i:xpan		before, in front of  (-i:x-pan)  
	-i:xtempan 	before someone (-i:x-te:n-pan)
	kahku		up    
	-nakastan  	beside (-nakas-tan) 								-na:wak	near, next to, beside
	-pal		of (possession)
	nu-pal		mine
	mu-pal		yours
	i-pal		his/hers/its
	-se:l		alone
	nu-se:l  	me alone, I by myself 								mu-se:l  	you alone
	i-se:l		he alone, she by herself
	-tahku		between, among
	-tan -kupa 	under, beneath, below 
	-tan		under, below
	-tech		beside, near, next to
	-tempan	at the edge of (limited usage, te:n-pan)

A few locatives are composed of a free preposition and a relational noun (with the appropriate possessive prefixes):

	ka -ihtik	 inside (cf. ihtik)
	ka -ipan  	behind 
	ka nu-ipan  	behind me
	ka -chan  	at (someone's house)
	ka nu-chan 	 at my place, at my house

	3.5.3. Frozen locatives. In a few cases some of these locatives have been frozen in compounds with a meaning not obvious from the sum of the parts:
	
	ka-ik-ahku		(to) heaven, sky
	-kal-ihtik		inside (kal- "house")
	nu-kalihtik		inside me
	ka tatwi		in the early morning
	ka tayuwa		at night, in the night
	ka-ga:ri:tah		to the coast

A few cases take the prefix ta- 'unspecified object' (cf. 3.7.4.2.2):

	ta-tahku		in between, in the middle of
	ta-te:mpan		at the edge, along
	ta-teputstah		behind

	It should be noted that unlike Proto-Uto-Aztecan (Langacker 1977:92-3) Pipil has no productive postpositions.  However, it has reflexes of former postpostions both in the relational nouns (cf. 3.5.2) and in certain of the locative suffixes (cf. 3.1.3).  That is, while many Uto-Aztecan languages have postposed locatives as in, for example, Cora mi-kiye-hete "under that tree" (mi- "that", kiye  "tree",  hete "under"), Pipil and Nahua generally employ the typical Mesoamerican pattern with relational nouns, e.g. i-tan ne kwawi-t "under the tree" (i- "its", -tan "under", ne "the", kwawi-t "tree").  The origin of -tan "under" as a postposition is still seen in the nonproductive locative suffix  -tan, e.g. tsapu-tan "Ishuatan", a town name which meant literally "under the zapote trees", now meaning "place of zapotes" (tsapu-t "zapote", -tan 'locative').  See section 3.1.3 for details of this and other frozen locative suffixes.

3.6. Adjectives  

Pipil has several types of adjectives.  These are taken up individually.

	3.6.1. -k, -ti-k 'basic adjective'.  The most general class takes the suffix -k after a root-final vowel and -ti-k after consonants.  Some examples are:

	ahwiya-k	delicious		ahka-tik	light
	a:-sese-k	insipid			a:tul-tik	pale 
	chichi-k	bitter			chi:l-tik	red
	ete-k		heavy			chiki-til	small
	ihya-k		stinking		ko:h-tik	giant, huge 
	ista-k		white			ku:ti:l-tik  	black 
	kuku-k		hot, spicy		melak-tik	straight
	pipini-k	grainy			pets-tik		smooth
	puye-k		salty			ti:l-tik		black
	sasa:li-k	sticky, gummy  	tsitsin-tik  	stiff
	sele-k		tender, bland  		tsukul-tik	thick 
	tete-k		tight, firm		wahchul-tik  	light
	tupu-k		on all fours		wits-tik	thorny
	tutu:ni-k	hot			xuluch-tik	runny, 
	tsupe:le-k	sweet				  	    watery
	uksi-k		ripe, cooked
	xuku-k		sour
	xuxuwi-k	green
	yama:ni-k	bland
	yankwi-k	new
	yu:li-k		soft, slow

3.6.2. -nah.  Unlike the -(ti-)k class of adjectives, which are semantically unmarked or neutral, the second class takes the suffix -nah which means something like 'somewhat', similar to English "-ish", e.g. chichi:l-nah "reddish, somewhat red".  The -nah adjectives are derived from basic adjective stems or from nouns and verbs.  Some examples are:

	chichi:l-nah		reddish			pilich-nah		wrinkled
	chipak-nah		clear			pili:x-nah		feeble
	ihich-nah		pretty			puk-nah		dirty 
	i:xtetsi:l-nah		rigid faced		pusul-nah		crummy
	i:xtsuhtsukul-nah 	knotty, bumpy 	sehsen-nah		thin 
	i:xuhxupil-nah		wrinkled face 		tahtakal-nah  		knotty
	kukuk-nah		somewhat hot  	takwak-nah		hardish
	ku:pahsul-nah		disheveled,		ta:lmats-nah  		dirty
				     unkempt
	ku:puk-nah		dirty, brown  		tane:x-nah		overcast
	ku:s-nah		dirty color		tultik-nah		yellowish
	kwe:l-nah		bent, curved  		tumak-nah		plump
	kwikwi:l-nah		motley			u:chul-nah		narrow
	mimil-nah		round, sturdy 		ulul-nah		spherical
	nex-nah		dusty	      		yakapatax-nah 	pugnosed
	payax-nah		sandy	      		yawal-nah     		round
	pelech-nah		wounded, skinned

	3.6.3. -a:wa-k / -a-k.  The third class of adjectives is related morphologically to the -wa- 'inchoative' verbs (cf. section 3.7.8.3.1.)  These have a short variant, -a-k, which occurs in compounds involving these adjectives and in certain other constructions.  A few cases were already derived, e.g. chipak-nah "somewhat clear" (cf. chipa:wa-k "clear").  Others encountered from which some of the -nah forms are:

	ala:wa-k		smooth, slick
	cha:ma:wa-k		thick
	chipa:wa-k		clear, clean
	kama:wa-k		tender, ripening
	ku:pitsa:wa-k		skinny, thin
	kuya:wa-k		wide
	pitsa:wa-k		skinny, thin
	puxa:wa-k		wrinkled
	takwa:wa-k		hard
	tila:wa-k		thick
	tuma:wa-k		fat

	3.6.4. -tuk.  The fourth class of adjectives is in fact derived from verbs with the 'perfect' suffix -tuk which are used adjectivally just as corresponding forms are in English, e.g. "the hated task", "the desired outcome".  Some examples are:
		
	ahsi:lih-tuk			having goosebumps
	chihchi:lih-tuk			reddening
	chika:h-tuk			ripe
	ihka-tuk			standing 
	i:xihka-tuk			steep
	ku:tinin-tuk			stretched
	ku:wak-tuk			skinny, dried 
	kwikwi:lih-tuk			checked, plaid, spotted
	petsti-tuk			naked, nude
	sulu:n-tuk			swollen
	tachipah-tuk			clear, somewhat clear
	tawa:n-tuk			drunk
	te:n-tuk			full
	tsitsi:ka-tuk			silent
	utsti-tuk			pregnant
	wak-tuk			dry, dried
	yu:l-tuk			alive

	3.6.5. Other adjectives.  There are also a few adjectives which fit none of the above classes; most are borrowed from Spanish, though a few are in origin basically some other lexical category which have come to be employed as adjectives.  These are:

	chapachin (n.,adj.)		short 
	miktan				deep
	netech				thick, dense 
	pala				old, rotten
	tamanti				cooked, done
	tata				hot
	ye:k				good
	kutu				short
	alegre				happy, fun
	bi:dah				delicious, good
	choko, choka (n.,adj.)    	blind in one eye, one-eyed 
	desgrasiadoh (n.,adj.)	  	wretch, contemptible 
	estúpido			stupid
	ga:lá:n, gala:na (n.,ajd.) 	pretty, hansome, beautiful
	linguda (n.,adj.)		gossip, gossipy
	muruxu			curly
	puntudu			  pointed

	3.6.6. Adjective plurals. Adjectives can also be pluralized; they are reduplicated following the same pattern as the reduplicated nouns (cf. section 3.1.4.), repeating the first consonant(s), if any exist, and the first vowel with an h added.  The reduplicated adjective is often the only indication of 'plural' in noun phrases, as is, for example, ne chih-chi:l-tik tsapu-t "the red zapotes".  Some examples of reduplicated adjectives are: 
			
	chih-chichi-k		bitter 
	chih-chi:l-tik		red 
	eh-ete-k		heavy 
	ih-istak	white 
	kuh-kutu		short 
	pah-pala		old 
	yeh-ye:k		good 

For information on adjectives in larger constructions, cf. section 4.10.  Adjectives are also involved in incorporation (cf. section 4.13.1).  It should also be mentioned that several adjectives appear with the ta- prefix of 'unspecified object'; for details see section 3.7.4.2.4.	

3.7. Verbs  
	
	Verbs are the most complex category of Pipil because their morphology is the most extensive and because they fall into distinct classes defined in part phonologically by changes in their roots when different tenses and aspects are involved.  For that reason, these tenses and aspects are described first, and then the verb classes which depend on them are presented.
	
3.7.1. The order of verbal affixes.  Verbal affixes follow the formula:
	Intransitive Verb: 
	pron. subject(+directional)+root+tense/aspect(+number)
	Transitive Verb:
	pron. subject(+directional)+pron.object+root+tense/asp.(+number)

These affixes are described in detail below.
	
3.7.2. Tense and aspect.

	3.7.2.1. Present. The tense traditionally called 'present' in Pipil covers momentaneous (e.g.  "I eat (now)"), habitual ("I (always, characteristically) eat"), and frequently present progressive ("I'm eating") senses. It bears no special affixes, although the root-final vowel is maintained.  Transitive verbs very frequently have an -a which signals transitivity, and some transitive verbs are distinguished from corresponding intransitives solely by the presence of this -a.  The following examples of third person singular transitive and intransitive forms illustrate this:
	
	Intransitive				Transitive
	ahke:wi	comes apart		ahke:wa	takes apart
	ihtakawi	breaks down		ihtakua		takes apart, ruins
	kupe:wi	breaks			kupe:wa	breaks
	kupi:ni		comes out		kupi:na		tears out
	kuyuni		a hole opens		kuyuna		makes a hole
	kwe:chiwi	is insect-eaten		kwe:chua	grinds finely
	kwe:liwi	bends, curves		kwe:lua	bends
	mulu:ni	dust flies		mulu:nia	blows dust         
	pahti		heals, cures		pahtia		cures
	pa:ti		melts (i.v.)		pa:ta		melts (t.v.)
	puchini		frays, ravels  		puchina	plucks
	puliwi		gets lost		pulua		loses
	pusu:ni		foams			pusu:nia	puffs up
	se:wi		goes out		se:wia		extinguishes
	su:tumi	comes unsewed	su:tuma	unsews, unties      
	tami		ends			tamia		finishes
	tapa:ni		bursts			tapa:na		explodes
	panu		passes			mu-teki-panua  sustains oneself 
						   (literally, reflexive-work-pass)
	te:mi		fills			te:ma		fills
	tepe:wi   	abounds		tepe:wa	piles up
	wile:wi		breaks down		wile:wa	undoes, destroys
	xi:pe:wi	gets skinned,		xi:pe:wa	peels, skins
(Cf. section 3.7.8.3.1 for the relation between verbs in Vwi and ua.)

	3.7.2.2. 'Preterite' (simple past).  The form of the preterite suffix varies depending upon the verb class (see below).  In the singular (i.e., with singular subjects) Class I verbs take -ki or Ø; verbs of this class lose their root-final vowel in the preterite (cf. 2.23). With Class II verbs it is -k; these verbs keep their final vowel.  In Classes III and IV, the preterite is Ø.  In all classes, with plural person subjects the suffix is -ke-t (-t 'plural'). Some examples are:
	
Class II
	ahsi		to arrive		ahsi-k			ahsi-ke-t
						     (he) arrived  	     they arrived
	chu:ka		to cry			chu:ka-k		chu:ka-ke-t

Class I
	chiwa		to do, make		chiw-ki		chiw-ke-t
	ki:sa		to leave		ki:s-ki			ki:s-ke-t
	kuchi		to sleep		kuch-ki		kuch-ke-t
	na:miki  	to find			na:mik			na:mik-ke-t

Class III
	sa:lua		to stick, glue		sa:luh			sa:luh-ke-t
	machtia  	to teach		machtih		machtih-ke-t

Class IV
	kwa		to eat			kwah			kwah-ke-t
	kwi		to grab, to take		kwih			kwih-ke-t

	3.7.2.3. 'Perfect'.  The verb classes which lose their stem-final vowel in the preterite also lose it in the perfect, though for some, vowel-loss is optional in the 'preterite' but obligatory in the 'perfect'.  The basic form of the 'perfect' is made up of tu- 'past participle' plus -k (probably in origin the 'preterite') in the singular and -tiwi-t in the plural.  The -tu- suffix also occurs in other combinations, e.g.-tu-ya(-t) (cf. section 3.7.6.1) and -tu-skiya(-t) (cf. section 3.7.2.4.1).  The meaning of -tu-k/tiwi-t is 'perfect', both 'present perfect' and 'past perfect', e.g. ni-k-chiw-tuk "I have done it", "I had done it".  It refers to past action with present relevance.  That is, the 'perfect' refers to an event in the past which has relation to the present situation.  Its use in the texts of chapter 7 gives the best indication of its meaning and function.  Some examples of its form are:

Class I
	chiwa		to do,    		-chiw-tuk		-chiw-tiwi-t
			     make      		     (he) has done   	      they have done 		ki:sa		to leave  		ki:s-tuk		ki:s-tiwi-t
	kuchi		to sleep		kuch-tuk		kuch-tiwi-t
	na:miki 	to find   		-na:mik-tuk		-na:mik-tiwi-t

Class II
	ahsi		to arrive 		ahsi-tuk		ahsi-tiwi-t
	chu:ka  	to cry    		chu:ka-tuk		chu:ka-tiwi-t

Class III
	sa:lua  		to stick, glue		sa:luh-tuk   		sa:luh-tiwi-t
	machtia 	to teach		-machtih-tuk 		-machtih-tiwi-t

Class IV
	kwa		to eat			-kwah-tuk    		-kwah-tiwi-t
	kwi		to grab, take		-kwih-tuk    		-kwih-tiwi-t
	(The 'past participle' -tu- combines also with  other  affixes, e.g. the 'conditional' and the 'imperfect';  cf. the next section, 3.7.2.4.1 and section 3.7.6.1.)
	
	3.7.2.4. 'Conditional'.  The conditional suffix is -skiya 'singular' and -skiya-t 'plural'.  It is normally attached to the verb root, which is the same as the 'present' stem –that is, the stem-final vowel is present.  However, the verbs of Class III which end in -ia and -ua in the 'present', -ih and -uh in the 'preterite' and 'perfect' attach the suffix to the root without the root-final vowel and also without the h, e.g. pulua "to lose", ni-k-pulu-skiya 'I would lose it" (cf. ni-k-pulua "I lose it", ni-k-puluh "I lost it", ni-k-puluh-tuk "I have lost it").  This suffix is called 'conditional' in the literature; it has the approximate meaning of "would" in English.   However, speakers at times tend to translate these forms with the equivalent of "want" or "would like to".  This 'desiderative' connotation may ultimately be due to Spanish influence, since it is often translated into Spanish with the subjunctive and Spanish subjunctives can have both the 'conditional' and the 'desiderative' senses.  The 'conditional' paradigm of panu "to pass" is:

	ni-panu-skiya			I would pass
	ti-panu-skiya			you (sg.) would pass
	panu-skiya			he/she/it would pass
	ti-panu-skiya-t			we would pass
	am-panu-skiya-t (/an-/) 	you (pl.) would pass 
	panu-skiya-t			they would pass

	3.7.2.4.1. 'perfect conditionals'.  There is also a quite infrequent 'perfect conditional' composed of -tu- 'past participle' (cf. -tu-k, -tiwi-t) plus -skiya(-t) 'conditional, with the meaning "would have", e.g.:
	
	ahsi-tu-skiya			she would have arrived
	ni-k-taxtah-tu-skiya		I would have paid it
	yah-tu-skiya			he would have gone
	yah-tu-skiya-t			they would have gone
	ni-nemi-skiya ni:kan		I would like to be here
	ke:n  ki-chiwa-skiya		How could it be done?
	ni-kwa-skiya			I would like to eat
	ni-k-tu:ka-skiya		I would plant it
	ni-(k-)kuwa-skiya		I would buy it

(For conditionals in larger constructions, cf. 4.19.)

	3.7.2.5. 'Future'. The future suffixes today in spoken Pipil are very rare.  Usually future meanings are given in periphrastic constructions, e.g. ni-yu ni-k-chiwa, literally "I'm going to do it".  In this, Pipil is very similar to local Spanish, where the periphrastic forms, e.g. lo voy a hacer (cf. ni-yu ni-k-chiwa) "I'm going to do it" are the most typical, with future forms such as lo haré (cf. ni-k-chiwa-s) "I will do it" rare and stilted.  The Pipil future suffixes are -s 'singular' and -s-ke-t 'plural'; they are similar to the 'conditional' in that normally they are attached to the verb root ('present' stem) with the final vowel present, though Class III verbs lack the root-final vowel and the h of other tenses and aspects, e.g. pulu-ske-t "they will lose it" (cf. puluhke-t "they lost it").  The panu "to pass" 'future' paradigm is:

	ni-panu-s			I will pass
	ti-panu-s			you (sg.) will pass
	panu-s				(he/she/it) will pass
	ti-panu-ske-t			we will pass
	am-panu-ske-t (/an-/)		you (pl.) will pass
	panu-ske-t			they will pass

In Cuisnahuat these rare futures are most often found with the adverbs xa:n "later, afterwards" and mu:sta "tomorrow", as in:
	
	xa:n ni-k-kwa-s			later I will eat it
	xa:n ti-k-kwa-s			later you will eat it
	xa:n ki-kwa-s				later he/she/it will eat it
	xa:n ti-k-kwa-ske-t			later we will eat it
	xa:n an-ki-kwa-ske-t			later you (pl.) will eat it
	xa:n ki-kwa-ske-t			later they will eat it
	mu:sta  ti-k-kwa-s nakatamal		tomorrow you will eat tamales 
	yaha mu:sta ki-kwa-s nakatamal 	tomorrow he will eat tamales 				mu:sta ti-ya-s				tomorrow you will go
	mu:sta ya-s				tomorrow he will go

	3.7.2.6. 'Desiderative'. Pipil has a 'desiderative' composed of 'future' -s plus neki, historically from the verb root "to want".  It has the form: pronouns+verb+s+neki(+plural).  The construction means "to want to do the action expressed by the verb".  Some examples are:

	naha ni-k-kwa-s-neki			I want to eat it
	taha ti-k-kwa-s-neki			you (sg.) want to eat it
	yaha ki-kwa-s-neki			he/she wants to eat it
	tehemet ti-k-kwa-s-neki-t		we want to eat it
	an-ehemet an-ki-kwa-s-neki-t 	you (pl.) want to eat it 			yehemet ki-kwa-s-neki-t		they want to eat it

	3.7.2.7. 'Imperfect'. The suffix -ya 'imperfect' indicates continuous past actions, best translated into English as "used to do" or "was doing" the action of the verb.  It is equivalent to the Spanish 'imperfect past' which ends in -ía or -aba, e.g. comía "(she) was eating", caminaba "(he) used to walk".  It is employed rather seldom in present-day Pipil.  Some examples are:
	
	ni-tawi:kilia-ya 	I owed (him money for some time)
	ki-na:maka-ya    	he used to sell/was selling it

	3.7.2.7.1. -tu-ya 'past  imperfect'.  The suffix -tu-ya is exceedingly rare in today's usage.  It is composed of the 'past participle' -tu- (cf. -tu-k, -tiwi-t, section 3.7.2.3) plus the 'imperfect' -ya.  It essentially means an action which continued in the past but is now ended, e.g.:

	ni-k-itskih-tu-ya   	I had been grabbing it 						ni-k-chiw-tu-ya     	I had been doing it 						ti-k-chiw-tu-ya     	we used to be doing it

It should be noted that the 'imperfect' is distinct from the clitic -a/-ya "already, now", and should not be confused with it (cf. section 3.8.1).

	With this information about tenses and aspects we can now turn to a description of the verb classes.  Once the verb classes are clear, we can return to a characterization of the rest of the verb morphology, including additional details about tense and aspect.

3.7.3. Verb classes 
	
	It is almost possible to define the verb classes totally by reference to their phonological form (cf. section 2.2), but this is complicated by some exceptions and by certain verbs whose form varies.  Therefore, verb classes are defined here, and the dictionary entries (chapter 5) indicate them by presenting verb tenses and aspects which show their phonological form in each case.  This is important information, since the phonological shape is frequently not predictable.  It will be noticed that the description of Pipil verb classes is roughly equivalent to that presented for Classical Nahuatl by Andrews (1975).

	3.7.3.1. Class I ((C)VCV) verbs.  Class I verbs typically lose their root-final vowel in the 'preterite' and 'perfect'.  Some lose the vowel only in the 'perfect' and not in the 'preterite' (cf. the vowel-loss rules, section 2.2).  Class I verbs are characteristically of the shape (C)VCV, but do not include the (C)Vka or (C)VCu forms of Class II.  Loss of the root-final vowel in these verbs creates no consonant clusters of more than two members. The 'preterite' with this class is normally -ki or Ø, except in the case of certain intransitive verbs which keep the root vowel in the 'preterite' but lose it in the 'perfect'.  Class I is by far the largest class.  Examples of it are:
	
	ah-suma	to comb		pi:tsa		to blow a whistle
	a:-kal-aki	to sink			piya		to have

	a:na		to grab			puwa		to count
	chihchimi	to touch		sahsaka	to cart
	chiwa		to do, make		se:wi		to go out
	chiya		to look, wait		su:ma		to fight
	ichteki		to steal			su:tuma	to unsew
	ihiya		to hate			suwa		to spread out
	ihnekwi	to smell		tahkali		to throw out
	ihseki		to toast			tahpiya		to watch
	ihtsuma	to sew			tahtani		to ask
	kahka:wa	to leave		tami		to end

	kaki		to hear			tamima		to drop
	kal-aki		to enter		ta:sa		to bump
	ketsa		to lift, raise		tatasi		to cough
	ki:sa		to leave		tatsiwi		to feel lazy
	kuwa		to buy			ta:wa:na	to get drunk
	kuchi		to sleep		tayi		to clear ground
	ku:na:ki	to get stuck		teki		to cut
	kwahkwawi	to get firewood  	tekiti		to work
	kwepa		to lift, raise		te:ma		to fill
	mahmawi	to fear			te:mi		to fill
	mana		to cook			tisi		to grind
	me:wa		to weed		tiyu:taki	to become evening
	miki		to die			tahtuma	to untie
	mi:ma		to throw, shoot  	tsakwa		to close
	na:miki	to meet			tsa:wa		to weave
	nehnemi	to walk			tsuma		to sew
	neki		to want			tsutu:na	to play music
	nemi		to be			uchpa:na	to sweep
	nu:tsa		to speak		u:ya		to shell (corn)
	pala:ni		to rot			wa:ki		to dry
	pata:ni	   	to fly			wetsi		to fall
	pe:peta		to check, search 	wiwita		to pull out
	pe:wa		to begin		xa:wa		to clear land
	pi:ki		to arrange,		xi:ma		to scrape
			     to assemble		xi:ni		to scatter
						xi:xa		to urinate
	3.7.3.2.  Class II verbs (C)VCCV, (C)Vka_, (C)VCu.  The next largest group is Class II.  These verbs do not lose their root-final vowel in the 'preterite' or the 'perfect'. The majority are characterized by the phonological shapes: (C)VCCV, (C)Vka, and (C)VCu -- the shapes that resist vowel-loss either because otherwise impermissible consonant clusters would arise, or because -ka and -u are not subject to the rule (cf. section 2.2). Nevertheless, there are some verbs of this class which have none of these phonological patterns, but fail to undergo vowel loss.  The form of the 'preterite' of Class II verbs is -k in the singular (all classes have -ke-t in the plural).  Some examples are:

	ahsi		arrive			patska		to milk, twist
	ahwa		to scold		pixka		to pick, harvest
	a:ti		to drink		pixki		for kernels to peel
	chihcha	to spit			takwi:ka	to sing
	chu:ka		to cry			tamu:ta	to 	throw
	ehku		to arrive		tasuhta		to love
	ina		to tell			tata		to burn
	i:sa		to awaken		tehku		to climb
	isu:ta		to vomit		te:ka		to put on the ground
	ixka		to roast			temu		to descend
	kikinaka	to complain		tu:ka		to bury, plant
	maka		to give			tsahtsi		to shout
	mu:ta		to throw at		uksi		to cook
	naka		to stay			uni		to drink
		
	(also Class I)
	
	namaka	to sell			weli	to be able to
	ne:si		to appear		wetska	to laugh
	pa:ka		to wash		wi:ka	to take
	pata		to change		xu:ta	to wound
	pa:ti		to melt			
	
	3.7.3.3. Class III (-ia, -ua).  The verbs of Class III end in -ia or -ua in the 'present'; in the 'preterite' and 'perfect' their roots end in -ih and -uh; and in the 'conditional' and  'future' forms their roots end in plain -i and -u.  Phonetically in the 'present' these are (-iya) and (-uwa) and are not phonetically distinct from verbs with underlying /-iya/ (and /-uwa/).  They are morphophonemically distinct, however, given that these latter are either -iya-k or -ix(-k) in the 'preterite'.  Historically it is probable that Pre-Proto-Nahua had an intervocalic h which was lost in Class III verbs (i.e. -iha, -uha) in their present stems.  This accounts for why h is present in the 'preterite' and 'perfect' forms of this class; the h was not intervocalic here and hence was not lost.  We might further postulate that this historical h was lost in the 'conditionals' and 'futures' of this class because it would have otherwise created a consonant cluster of more than two members (e.g. -_ih-skiya_, -uh-s-ke-t) or two consonants at the end of a word (e.g. -ih-s 'singular future'). Also, historically the verbs with a short vowel before w plus a (i.e. -Vwa) changed ultimate to -ua (cf. Canger1980). This change is evident in Pipil reflexes as in the pairs of verbs where the transitive has -ua and the corresponding intransitive has -Vwi, e.g.:

	ihtakawi     	to break down    	ihtakua     	to take apart, ruin			kwe:chiwi    	for corn to be   	kwe:chua  	 to grind finely
			     insect-eaten
	kwe:liwi     	to curve, bend   	kwe:lua     	to bend (something)

Thus it seems that historical -Vwa became -uha and later the h was lost intervocalically, giving -ua, but preserved finally and before a single consonant.  This is a reflex of the Pre-Proto-Nahua change of syllable-final w to h (cf. Campbell and Langacker 1978). Some examples of this class are:

	ahkamacha:lua 	to yawn		a:wia		to wash (first)
	ahnekua		to smell		ilpia		to tie
	cha(:)lua		to hit, beat		ilwia		to say
	chichinua		to singe		iskalia		to raise, rear
	chihchikilua  		to be ticklish		istawia		to salt
	chu:lua	to		flee			istiwia		to pinch
	ehekua			to exert effort		i:xitia		to wake
	e:kua			to withstand		kalaktia	to insert
	ihkwilua		to write		ku:nti:lwia 	to make sooty
	ihtakua	to 		take apart		ku:pa:wia	to swing
	kakasussa		to be vexed		machtia	to teach
	kamachulua		to yawn		mamalia	to (en)tangle
	kapa:xua		to loosen		mu:tia		to frighten
	kech-tanua		to carry on shoulder	pahtia		to cure
	kehtsi:lua		to stand on tiptoes	patilia		to exchange
	kimilua		to wrap		pe:wia		to catch, hunt
	ku:sua			to string		pukwia		to smoke        
	kuyulua		to shrink		selia		to withstand
	kwe:chua		to scrape		tahtachia	to have fun
	kweh-kwe:lua  	to bend			tahtawelia  	to complain
	kwikwilua		to paint		ta:ku:lia	to give, present to	ma:t:lua		to smooth		takwaltia	to sustain, support
	mimilua		to roll			ta:lia		to put, place
	mumuxua		to crumb		tatia		to burn
	na:palua		to embrace		tepe:wilia  	to heap on
	nekwilua		to lean			tetilia		to tighten
	pachua			to hold down		tili:nia		to stretch
	pahsulua		for hair to be mussed  	ti:lwia		to get sooty
	pa:xa:lua		to have fun		tuhtunwia	to knock
	pe:lua			to open			tsahtsalia  	to call someone
	pilua			to hang			tsuyunia	to fry
	pitsakua		to make 		thin		uli:nia	to stir
	pi:xua			to lay (eggs)		untuwia	to stoke (fire)
	putsua			to pile up		wihwila:nia 	to hang
	sa:lua			to stick, glue		xa:ma:nia	to toast tortilla
	ta:wilua		to illuminate
	tulua			to swallow
	tsapalua		to lower
	tsehtselua		to shake
	tsihkwilua		to walk by feeling
	ululua			to roll
	wawasua		to scrape
	xakwalua		to scrub
	xihxikua		to deceive
	yawalua		to roll

	3.7.3.4. Class IV verbs (-CV alternating with -CVh).  Class IV has very few members.  It is characterized by monosyllabic verb roots (and verbs derived from monosyllabic roots) which end in a vowel in most instances, i.e. in the 'present', 'future', 'conditional' and 'imperative', but terminate with h in the 'preterite' and 'perfect' forms.  The members are:

	kwa			to eat
	kwi			to take, grab
	tan-kwa		to bite
	chah-chan-kwa	to chew
	-al-kwi			to bring
	ta-kwi			to borrow
	yu:l-kwi		to revive

	In effect, there are only two roots involved, and these might equally well be considered exceptions of some sort.  However, since corresponding forms have been labeled "Class IV" by others (cf. Andrews 1975), the tradition is simply followed here. This practice is not too misleading, however, since these two roots occur with a very high frequency. 
	Having defined the verb classes, we may now return to the rest of the verb morphology.
	
	3.7.4.   Pronominal affixes with verbs.  As seen above, verbs bear prefixes which indicate pronominal subjects and objects and which also cross-reference full or independent pronoun, noun, and noun-phrase subjects.  These were presented in section 3.2).  Here we turn to the other pronominal affixes that occur with verbs.
	
	3.7.4.1. 'Reflexive' (mu-).  By the notion "reflexive" one does not usually understand a pronominal form, but the 'reflexive' morphemes in Nahua have typically been treated as pronominal because in central Mexican dialects they pattern with other pronominal prefixes and vary according to person.  The 'reflexive' morpheme of Pipil is mu- with all persons.  Its phonological shape is normally mu in all contexts, including before vowels, where it is phonetically (muw-) alternating freely with (mw-) in faster speech.  However, there are a few prevocalic cases where it is simply m- (see 2.2).  Some of these appear to have the m- fused as part of the root and it is no longer recognized as the historical reflexive that lies behind it.  Nevertheless, in these cases there exist other derivations which show the root without the otherwise frozen reflexive. (See below; cf. section 2.2.)  Examples of preconsonantal and prevocalic 'reflexive' paradigms are:
	
	ni-mu-ta:lia		I sit (literally "I place myself")
	ti-mu-ta:lia		you (sg.) sit
	mu-ta:lia		he/she/it sits
	ti-mu-ta:lia-t		we sit
	an-mu-ta:lia-t		you (pl.) sit
	mu-ta:lia-t		they sit

	ni-mu-a:paka		I wash myself
	ti-mu-a:paka		you (sg.) wash yourself
	mu-a:paka		he/she/it washes him-/her-/itself
	ti-mu-a:paka-t		we wash ourselves
	an-mu-a:paka-t	you (pl.) wash yourselves
	mu-a:paka-t		they wash themselves

Some additional examples of reflexive verbs are:

	mu-a:pachua		to throw oneself in the water
	mu-chayuntia		to swing
	mu-i:xmimilua		to roll
	mu-i:xmu:tia		to be frightened, afraid
	mu-i:xpa:ka		to wash one's face
	mu-kxi-pa:ka		to wash one's feet
	mu-machtia		to learn (i.e. to teach oneself)
	mu-na:miktia		to get married
	mu-ne:xtia		to show oneself
	mu-sewi		to rest
	mu-tahkwiltia		to braid (one's hair)
	mu-ta:lua		to run
	mu-tapatia		to dress, change clothes
	mu-ta:sa		to bump into 
	mu-ta:wa:ntia		to get drunk
	mu-techtia		to be sad, become sad
	mu-te:ka		to lie down
	mu-tu:nalwia		to sun oneself
	mu-tsinta:lia		to squat
	mu-wawana		to scratch oneself

A few examples of the prevocalic m- allomorph, together with related non-reflexive forms, are:
	m-a:ltiato 	bathe (oneself)  		k-altia		to bathe
	m-a:wiltia	to play            		 	k-a:wiltia 	to play it
	m-ihtutia	to dance            		k-ihtutia  	to dance it
	m-i:naya	to hide (oneself)   		k-i:naya   	to hide it
	m-ihkwani	to remove (self)    		k-ihkwani  	to remove it
	m-isu:tia	to vomit					
	m-itu:ni(ya) 	to sweat

A few verbs which are reflexive in form have developed specialized senses:

	mu-chiwa 	to grow    	(from chiwa "to make")
	mu-neki   	to need    	(from neki "to want")

	There is one suppletive form with mu-, derived from a verb but used as an adjective: mu-e(t)s-tuk "seated, sitting".
	With respect to the order of verbal prefixes, subject pronominals precede mu-, but the object pronominal prefixes and the reflexive are mutually exclusive, both occupying the "object" position.  In the few cases of verbs which bear both the 'reflexive' and either the (w)al- 'directional' or -el- 'mentation/inside' (see below) prefixes, the 'reflexive' follows these, e.g.:
	
	(w)al-mu-ne:lwia    	to hurry
	el-mu-yawa		to be nauseated

(Cf. 2.2 and 3.7.6.1.)
	
	In the dictionary (chapter 5) reflexive verbs are not listed independently (under mu-, but rather are found under the verb root with the abbreviation r.v. to indicate that the root occurs with the reflexive morpheme.
	
	3.7.4.2. ta- 'unspecified object'.  In addition to the object pronominal prefixes already presented, Pipil has another which is employed to show that the (non-human) object of a transitive verb is not specified.  Verbs with this prefix, ta-, are translated with an object "something" or "to be doing" whatever the action of the verb is, without specifying what the object of the action is; cf. ni-ta-hkwilua "I am writing" or "I write (something)" / ni-kihkwilua "I write it".  For example, ta- forms are much used for answering the question, "what are you doing?"; the answer might be, for example, ni-ta-istawia "I'm  salting". That is, the 'unspecified object' ta- is natural in contexts where the action of the verb is in focus and the object is of little relevance, as seen in these forms:
		
	ni-ta-u:ya				I am shelling (corn)
	     (cf. ni-k-u:ya "I shell it") 									ni-ta-ilpia				I am tying
	     (cf. ni-k-ilpia "I tie it")
	ni-ta-ku:tamima  			I throw something
	     (cf. ki-ku:tamima "he throws it")

Some instances of verbs with ta- are:

	ta-chalua		to hit, beat
	ta-chichina		to smoke
	ta-chihcha		to spit
	ta-chiya		to look
	ta-chteki		to steal (cf. k-ichteki "to steal it")
	ta-hkwilua		to write (cf. k-ihkwilua "to write it")
	ta-hseki		to toast (cf. k-ihseki "to toast it")
	ta-htsuma		to sew (cf. k-ihtsuma "to sew it")
	ta-ihxihxi:ma		to scrape
	ta-ilpia			to tie
	ta-iskalia		to raise, grow
	ta-istawia		to salt
	ta-(i)xi:ka		to drip
	ta-ixka			to roast
	ta-ki:xtia		to take out
	ta-kwa			to eat
	ta-mana		to cook     
	ta-me:wa		to weed
	ta-mali:na		to twist
	ta-patilia		to exchange
	ta-patka:wia		to replant
	ta-paya:na		to grind corn (first pass)
	ta-pixka		to pick, harvest
	ta-su:ma		to fight, hit
	ta-wiya			to shell (corn)

	3.7.4.2.1. Non-productive and special ta- forms.  In a few verbs the ta- prefix is no longer optional, but has become a frozen part of the verb root.  Normally, verbs with ta- as the unspecified object do not permit the simultaneous occurrence of k(i)-, the 'third person singular pronominal object' prefix. However, the verbs with frozen ta- do take the k(i)- object marker.  In other cases the optional ta- prefix is added, but either with specialized semantic senses or irregular phonological outcomes.  Some instances of both kinds are:
	
	tah-a:na		to pick up  (cf. a:na "to pick up")
	ta-chpa:na (C) 		to sweep (cf. uchpa:na "to sweep";
	     			(t-uchpa:na (SD); normally only initial i before two 						consonants is lost with ta-)
	takwi:ka		to sing (cf. ni-k-takwi:ka "I sing it")
	tahkwiltia		to braid (cf. ni-k-tahkwiltia "I braid it; cf. (i)hkwilua "to 					write")
	tahpiya			to watch, care for (cf. piya "to have")
	tah-ta-chiya		to gawk, have fun (cf. chiya "to look")
	tah-ta-ketsa		to chat (cf. ketsa "to lift")
	take:ntia		to cover  (cf. -kwe:n-yu "blanket", take:n "blanket")
	takimiltia		to load (cf. _kimil_ "load")
	taksa			to  kick (cf.  (i)kx(i) "foot" + -a transitive present')
	takwi			to borrow (cf. _kwi_ "to take")
	ta-mati			to imagine, guess (cf. mati "to know")
	tane:si			to dawn (cf. ne:si "to appear, be seen")
	tatwi, tatwa  		to dawn   (cf. ita "to see", historically *(i)twa)

	3.7.4.2.2. Reduplication of ta-.  The ta- prefix is reduplicated with iterative verbs or with plural objects, e.g.:

	tah-ta-chiya		to look a lot, to have fun
	tah-ta-ketsa		to chat (cf. ta-ketsa "to talk")
	tah-ta-mu:ta		to throw (things)

(Cf. 3.7.5 for details about verb reduplication.)

	3.7.4.2.3. ta- with nouns derived from transitive verbs.  Often the nouns derived from transitive verbs also contain the ta- prefix, as in these examples:

	tachalis		sight			(ta-chiya-li-s; chiya "to look")
	tachani			miro'n lizard  		(ta-chiya-ni; chiya "to look")
	tachihchal  		spit			(ta-chihcha-l; chihcha "to spit")
	tahkwil			braid			(ta-ihkwil ...)
	tahtu:li			"principal"		(he who starts fiestas)
	take:n			blanket			(cf. ta-ke:n-tia "to cover, -kwe:n-yu 								"blanket")
	taketsal		house pole		(ta-ketsa-l; ketsa "to stand")
	takutun			piece			(ta-kutu:na "to cut")
	takwal			food			(ta-kwa-l; kwa "to eat")
	takwatsin		opossum		(ta-kwa-tsin (?); kwa "to eat")
	tanamakani  		venders		(ta-namaka-ni; namaka "to sell")
	tane:skan		dawn			(ta-ne:si ... "to appear")
	tapahsul		nest			(cf. mu-pahsulua "hair to be 									mussed")
	tapahtiyani 		curer			(ta-pah-tia-ni; pahtia "to cure")
	tamanti			cooked			(ta-mana; mana "to cook")
	tapakti			the wash		(ta-pa:ka; pa:ka "to wash")
	mu-tapatia  		to dress		(cf. pata "to change")
	tape:wil		game, hunt		(ta-pe:wi-l; pe:wia "to hunt")
	tapi:k			corn-dough tamale	(cf. pi:ki "to put together")			tatu:kal			planting		(ta-tu:ka-l; tu:ka "to plant")			tatsa:wani  		weaver			(ta-tsa:wa-ni; tsa:wa "to weave")
	tawiyal			maize kernels		(ta-wiya-l; wiya/u:ya "to shell")
	taxkal			rigua, tortilla		(ta-ixka-l; ixka "to roast")	

	3.7.4.2.4. Adjectives with ta-. A few adjectives and forms derived from adjectives also bear the ta- prefix, although it is not always clear how, if at all, these are derived from transitive verbs.  Some examples are:
		     
	ta-kwa:wak		hard
	ta-sesek		cold, morning frost (cf. sesek "cold")
	ta-chipak-tuk		clear (cf. chipa:wak "clear")
	ta-ku:mi		darkness (cf. ta-ku:miya "to get dark, from ku:mi-t "jug, 					pot")
	
	3.7.4.3. te:- 'someone'. The prefix te:- which functions in other Nahua varieties as a marker of an 'unspecified human object' (usually translated "someone") occurs also in Pipil, but it is no longer productive.  It is frozen in the following:

	te:chan (SD) 		town (cf. -chan "house")
	tehchiya		to wait (cf. chiya "to look, spy")
	te:paktia		to make (someone) laugh; cf. paktia "to make laugh"
	te:pal			another's, foreign; cf. nu-pal "mine", i-pal "his"
	te:kwani		Teotepeque (place name, from te:- 'someone' + kwa 
				"to eat" + -ni 'agent'; CN te:kwa:ni "jaguar") 	
	tiahwa 			to scold (cf. ahwa "to bark")
	ti:pan			back, behind (cf. -ipan "behind")
	tekwalutsa		to let someone else eat it (cf. kwa "to eat", -lu 'passive')

	3.7.5. Reduplication in verbs.  There are two types of reduplication that verbs participate in.  Both reduplicate the initial consonant(s) and the first vowel of the root, or only the vowel if no consonant occurs.  In both cases the vowel is short.  They differ in that one has only this form (i.e. (C)V-) while the other takes an additional h (i.e. (C)Vh-). The later is quite productive and many examples of it are presented in the dictionary (chapter 5). The former ((C)V-) is not productive, but many examples of it exist, typically with -ka or -tsa verbs (see below).  It means that plural objects or a repetition of the action are involved. Some examples are: 
	
	(C)Vh-
	ah-ahwa			to scold, bark (ahwa "to bark, scold")
	chah-chakwa:ni		to smash, cut up
	chah-chalua			to beat (cha(:)lua "to hit, beat")
	ih-ilwia			to offend (ilwia "to say")
	kuh-ku:ti:ya			to tire (ku:ti:ya "to tire")
	kwah-kwawi			to get firewood (cf. kwawi-t "wood")
	mih-miki			to wither (miki "to die")
	neh-nemi			to walk (nemi "to be")
	neh-ne:lwia			to hurry (ne:lwia "to hurry")
	pah-pachua			to press (pachua "to hold down")
	pah-pa:ki			to rejoice (pa:ki "to be happy")
	puh-pu:pu:wa			to pluck (pu:pu:wa "to clean")
	sah-saka			to cart
	tah-taketsa			to chat (taketsa "to talk")
	tah-tamu:ta			to throw (things) (tamu:ta "to throw")
	tah-ta:sa			to bump into (ta:sa "to bump into")
	tah-tatsi:ni			to shower (tatsi:ni "to sprinkle")
	teh-te-mima			to stone (te- "stone", -mima "to throw")
	tuh-tuma			to untie
	tsah-tsaya:na			to be tearing (tsaya:na "to tear, split")
	tshi-tsikwi:ni			to jump (tsikwi:ni "to jump, leap")
	uh-u:lini (SD)			to stir, move (u:lini "to move")
	xah-xakwalua			to scrub (xakwalua "to scrub")
	xuh-xulewa			to scrub (xulewa "to scrub")

	(C)V-		          
	kekelutsa			to move, stir
	kikinaka			to complain
	kukuchi			to nod off, be falling asleep (kuchi "to sleep")
	kwakwalaka			to boil (kwala:ni "to get angry")
	mimilaka			to burn
	mimilua			to roll
	mumulutsa			to smoke (mulu:ni "for dust to fly")
	papataka			to flap (pata:ni "to fly")
	pupuchwia			to smoke
	tutu:nia			to heat
	tsitsinaka			to illuminate
	tsitsinua			to break/cut into pieces
	tsutsu:na			to play (musical instrument)
	wawa:na			to scrape
	wiwita				to tear out
	yuyumuka			to itch
	
	3.7.6. Other verb prefixes.

	3.7.6.1. (w)al- 'directional'.  The directional prefix (w)al- means "hither", i.e. motion toward the speaker or toward where the action of the verb takes place.  It is derived historically from wa:lah "to come" ('preterite' form).  The allomorph wal- appears only if no other prefix precedes it; otherwise, the -al- allomorph occurs.  Also, this is the only prefix before which all the subject pronominal prefixes lose their final vowel, if they have one, e.g.:      
			
	n-al-ki:xtia		I remove it
	t-al-ki:xtia		you (sg.) remove it
	k-al-ki:xtia		he/she/it removes it
	t-al-ki:xtia-t		we remove it
	an-al-ki:xtia-t 	 	you (pl.) remove it 
	k-al-ki:xtia-t		they remove it
Some verbs with this prefix, compared to their counterparts without it, are:
	
	(w)al-ahsi		to find			ahsi		to arrive
	(w)al-a:na		to bring		a:na		to pick up
	(w)al-ehku		to arrive here		ehku		to arrive
	(w)al-(w)i:ka		to bring		wi:ka		to take
	(w)al-i:sa		to wake up		i:sa		to wake up
	(w)al-i:xtu:na		to delay		i:xtu:na	to be late
	(w)al-ki:sa		to leave (from 		ki:sa		to leave
					without)
	(w)al-kwi		to bring		kwi		to grab
	(w)al-naka		to stay (there)  	naka		to stay
	(w)al-na:miki		to believe		na:miki	to meet
	(w)al-mu-ne:lwia  	to hurry		mu-ne:lwia 	to hurry
	(w)al-ne:si		to appear		ne:si		to show up
	(w)al-nu:tsa		to call			nu:tsa		to speak
	(w)al-ta:kati		to be born       
	(w)al-temu		to descend		temu		to descend
	(w)al-tsin-ki:sa  	to leave in hiding	ki:sa		to leave 
	(w)al-wi:ka		to bring         		wi:ka      	to take
	(w)al-xi:ni		to scatter    	   	xi:ni      	to sprinkle

	3.7.6.2. -el- 'mentation/inside'.  The prefix -el- is not productive and few examples of it exist, but it appears to mean approximately "perception by the senses", that is, mental or emotional acts, or "inside".  It appears with verb roots, but also with other categories as well:

	el-ka:wa		to forget (ka:wa "to leave, abandon")
	el-mu-yawa		to be nauseated (yawa "to turn" (?))
	el-na:miki		to remember (na:miki "to encounter")
	-el-ixku		stomach
	el-kuhku		breast
	-el-pan			chest, breast
	-el-pets			animal breast
	-el-tapach		liver
	
3.7.6.3. -ah- 'buccal'.  Pipil has forms which suggest another non-productive verbal prefix now frozen as part of the root, which probably meant acts done with the mouth, although today this meaning is far from clear.   It also occurs with some non-verbal forms.  The examples are:

	ahkamacha:lua		to yawn (cf. ka:machalua (SD) "to yawn")
	ahka:na		to blow, fan
	ahketsawetsi		to fall mouth upward (i.e., on one's back; cf. wetsi "to fall")

	ahkwe:chiwi		to sneeze (cf. kwe:chiwi "to be insect-eaten")
	ahnekua (t.v.)		to smell (cf. ihnekwi "to smell" (i.v.))
	ahpu:tsa		to belch, burp (cf. pu:tsua "to accumulate")
	ahwa			to bark, scold (cf. wawa- "to bark"; 
				cf. CN wawaloa "to bark")	
	ahwa-t			chaff (that which is blown on to rid it from rice, beans, 					grain, etc.) 
	ahwiya-k		delicious

	3.7.6.4. -ih- 'superperficial'.  There is evidence of yet another non-productive, frozen, and rare verb prefix, -ih-, which seems to have something to do with the surface of objects.  It also is not limited to verbs.  The examples are:

	ihchiki			to scrub
	ihiya			to hate
	ihkwilua		to write (cf. kwikwil- "colored")
	ihnekwi		to smell (cf. ahnekua (SD) "to smell")
	ihtsilika		to tremble, shiver (cf. tsili:ni "to ring")
	ihtsuma		to sew (cf. tsuma (SD) "to sew")
	ihxihxi:ma		to scrape (with machete; cf. xi:ma "to cut hair")
	ihiyu			smell, breath
	ihka-tuk (Adj.)  	be standing
	ihpak			on top of

	3.7.7. Order of verb prefixes when (w)al- or -el- is present.  When one of these prefixes and either an object pronominal or reflexive prefix co-occur in a transitive verb form, the order is:
				-el-		-obj. pron.
	pron. subj. 	+		 +		 	+ root + tense/aspect(+pl.)  
				-al-		-reflexive

This order is seen in examples such as:
	
1) 	n1 -al2 -mu3 -ne:lwia4		"I hurry"						I1  directional2 reflexive3  root4

2) 	ni1 -el2 -mu3 -yawa4 		"I am nauseated"
	I1  'inside'2  reflexive3  root											
3) 	n1  -al2  -in3  -nu:tsa4			"I('m going to) call them"
	I1  directional2  them3  root4

4) 	k1  -al2  -in1  -nu:ts3  -ki4  		"(he) called them"
	them1  directional2  root3  preterite4

3.7.8. Verb moods and voices   

	In Pipil there are a number of suffixes which signal "voice" (changes in the relationship between a verb and its arguments (subject and objects)) and "mood" (the attitude of the speaker toward the action of the verb).  This section treats these morphemes. 

3.7.8.1. 'Imperative'/'optative'/'subjunctive'.  The second person 'imperative' morpheme is xi-/x-, the x- allomorph before vowels, xi- preceding consonants.  Its sense is 'imperative' or 'subjunctive/optative'.  There are also 'imperative' forms for the other persons (save first singular) composed of the exhortative particle ma:, which functions largely like the que with Spanish subjunctives when these are employed imperatively or exhortatively. Plural forms take the suffix -kan, whose underlying form is actually /-kam-/, but the m appears only when the clitic -(y)a "already" (emphasis) is attached to it.  Since this combination is rather rare, it is most often seen in the autonomous phonemic form -kan. Since the combination of ti- and -kan are sufficient to mark first person plural imperatives, the ma: is optional in this case.  The verb root normally appears in the 'present'-stem form (with final vowel), but Class III verbs (-ia, ua) lack both the vowel and the h that they have in other contexts (e.g. xi-nech-ilwi "tell me!"; cf. ti-nech-ilwia "you tell me", ti-nech-ilwih "you  told  me").  The imperative forms are best apprehended by considering the following paradigm:

	xi-k-kwa			eat it! (you sg.)
	ma: ki-kwa			let him/her eat!
	(ma:) ti-k-kwa-kan		let's eat it!
	xi-k-kwa-kan			eat it! (you pl.)	
	ma: ki-kwa-kan		let them eat it!  
	
A few examples are:
	
	xi-tehch(iy)a-kam-a		wait now! (you pl.)
	xi-tehchiya			wait! (you sg.)
	xi-ku:chi-kam-a		sleep now! (you pl.)
	ma: ti-k-i:na-kan		let's say (it)!
	ma: xi-k-mikti			kill it! (you sg.)
	xi-k-ilwi			tell him! (you sg.)
	ma: yawi			let him go!
	xi-k-chiwa			do it! (you sg.)
	x-i:sa-kan			wake up! (you pl.)
	xi-nech-wi:ka-kan		take me! (you pl.)
	xi-k-itski-kan			grab it! (you pl.)
	ma: ki-panulti			let him pass it!
	xi-kalaki			come in! (you sg.)
	xi-nech-kaki			listen to me! (you sg.)
	x-a:kan				go! (you pl.)

For negative imperative constructions and imperatives in larger syntactic patterns, cf. section 4.5.
                    
	3.7.8.2. 'Causatives'.  'Causative' verbs for the most part have the suffix -tia, sometimes -ltia, which makes them members of Class III verbs.  This suffix creates a transitive verb when it is attached to an intransitive root; it derives causative verbs when added to transitive stems.  It also derives transitive verbs from nouns.  Historically the 'causative' had an i which caused palatalization of a preceding s to x and ts to ch, e.g. ki:x-tia "to take out" (cf. ki:sa "to leave").  This i no longer appears except when it changes the root-final vowel of some forms, e.g. i:xitia "to wake (someone) up" (cf. i:sa "to wake up").  (See rule 6, section 2.2.)  A few examples will help show the form and meaning:

	ahxitia          		to place near (ahsi "to arrive")
	a:kalaktia      	 	to immerse (a:kalaki "to sink")
	m-a:ltia		to bathe (a:-t "water"+tia)
	m-a:wiltia		to play (cf. a:wil-ti "toy")
	chakaltia		to stoke
	chayuntia		to swing
	chu:ktia,		to cause to cry (chu:ka "to cry")
	     chu:kaltia
	ihisiwitia		to hurry (ihisiwi "to hurry")
	ilwitia			to show (ilwia "to say")
	kwe:ntia		to cover (cf. -kwe:n-yu "blanket")
	machtia		to teach, learn (mati "to know)
	miktia			to kill (miki "to die")
	nawatia		to advise (cf. na:wa-t "Pipil")
	ne:xtia			to discover (ne:si "to show up")
	pahtia			to cure (cf.pah-ti "medicine")
	panultia		to pass (something)(panu "to pass")
	petstia			to undress (cf. pets-tik "nude")
	tahkwiltia		to braid (cf. tahkwil "braid")
	takimiltia		to load (cf. kimil "load")
	tantia			to sharpen (cf. -tan "tooth")
	mu-ta:wa:ntia		to get drunk (ta:wa:na "to get drunk")
	tehkultia		to raise (tehku "to climb")
	temultia		to lower (temu "to descend")
	tu:keytia		to name (cf. tu:key "name")
	tuktia			to send
	tsikwastia		to comb (cf. tsikuwas "comb")
	u:lintia			to stir (something)(uli:ni "to stir")
	weyatia		to grow (cf. we:y "big")
	yu:ltia			to fill (-yu:l "heart")

	3.7.8.3. 'Inchoatives'.  Pipil has three kinds of inchoatives, to which we now turn.
	
	3.7.8.3.1. 'Inchoatives' with -ua/-wi/-wa.  The 'inchoative' suffixes are related to the causatives in that, while the intransitive forms have 'inchoative' meaning ("to become what is signified in the root"), the transitives have a causative meaning, e.g. kwe:liwi (i.v.) "to curve" (cf. kwe:l- "curved, bent"); ku:sua (t.v.) "to bead, insert" (cf. ku:s- "bead").  Many of these are inchoatives of 'size' or 'shape' (inchoatives of 'sensations' are considered later).  The transitive counterpart, -ua, has sometimes been called a 'passive', but its function is more accurately described as 'impersonal', a means of employing a transitive verb without specifying its subject, translated into English as, for example, "they sell apples", "apples are sold", "one sells apples".  Some examples are:

	ahkw:chiwi		to sneeze
	a:mesawi		to drown
	apsulwia		to  heat water (apsul "hot water")
	ihtakawi		to break down
	istawia			to salt (ista-t "salt")
	ku:nti:lwia		to make sooty  (ku:nti:l "soot")
	kwe:liwi		to  curve (kwe:l-nah "curved, bent")
	kwe:chiwi		to be insect-eaten (kwe:ch-tik "ground fine")
	ne:lwia			to hurry
	pachiwia		to watch
	patka:wia		to replant (patka "change")
	pukwia			to smoke (puk-ti "smoke")
	puliwi			to get lost
	tatsiwi			to be lazy
	tepe:wi			to abound (tepe:-t "mountain")
	teputswia		to lay (eggs)(teputs- "shoulder, back")
	ti:lwia			to get sooty (ti:l "soot")
	tu:nalwia		to sun (tu:nal "sun")
	untuwia		to stoke
	wilewi			to break down
	ye:kawi		to end

	kaxa:wa		to reduce
	mela(:)wa		to straighten
	pata:wa		to extend
	peta:wa		to open (one's shirt)
	sama:wa		to abaound
	suta:wa		to tire
	ta:ke:wa		to accommodate
	tepe:wa		to pile
	tsine:wa		to chop, cut down
	wile:wa		to destroy          
	xule:wa		to scrub

	ahkamacha:lua		to yawn
	ahnekua		to smell
	cha(:)lua		to hit
	chichinua		to singe
	chihchikilua		to tickle
	chu:lua			to flee
	ihkwilua		to write
	ihtakua			to take apart
	kakasua		to bother
	kapa:xua		to loosen
	kehtsi:lua		to stand on tiptoes
	kimilua		to wrap
	ku:sua			to bead, insert
	kwe:chua		to grind finely
	kwehkwe:lua		to bend
	kwikwilua		to paint different colores
	ma:ti:lua		to smooth
	mimilua		to roll
	mumuxua		to break into pieces, to crumb
	na:palua		to embrace
	ne:lua			to stir
	pachua			to hold down
	pa:xa:lua		to walk, have fun
	pe:lua			to open
	pilua			to hang
	pitsakua		to make thinner
	pi:xua			to lay (eggs)
	putsua			to pile up
	sa:lua			to stick, glue
	mu-talua		to run
	tapu(w)a		to open
	ta:wilua		to illuminate
	tsapalua		to lower
	tsehtselua		to shake
	tshikwilua		to walk by feeling
	tsitsinua		to break into pieces
	tsukulua		to crouch
	ululua			to roll
	wawasua		to scrape
	xakwalua		to scrub
	xihxikua		to cheat, deceive
	yawalua		to roll

In this context, it should be mentioned that the -a:wa-k class of inchoative adjectives is derived from these verbs.  Examples are:

	ala:wak		smooth, slick
	cha:ma:wak		thick
	chipa:wak		clear, clean
	kama:wak		tender, not dry
	kuya:wak		wide
	pata:wak		wide
	puxa:wak		wrinkled
	takwa:wak		hard
	tila:wak		thick
	tuma:wak		fat
(See section 3.6.3.)
	
	3.7.8.3.2. 'Inchoatives' of "perception" or "sensation" (-ya).  Another kind of inchoative verb bears the suffix -ya, which derives intransitive inchoatives from adjective roots which typically mean something having to do with "sensations" or "perceptions". Some examples are:
	
	chichi:ltiya		to redden (chi:l-tik "red")
	chichiya		to become bitter (chichi-k "bitter")
	chika:waya		to ripen (chika:h-tuk "ripe")
	chi:ltiya		to redden (chi:l-tik "red")
	ihya:ya			to stink (ihya-k "stinking")
	istaya			to become white (ista-k "white")
	itu:niya		to sweat (tutu:ni-k "hot")
	(kuh)ku:tiya		to tire
	kukuya			to get sick, become ill 
	ku:ti:ltiya		to blacken (ku:ti:l-tik "black")
	pata:waya		to become wide (pata:wa-k "wide")
	seseya			to get cold (sesek |"cold")
	sutawaya		to tire (cf. suta:wa "to get tired")
	taku:miya		to get dark (ta-ku:mi "dark")
	takwa:waya		to harden (takwa:wa-k "hard")
	ti:ltiya			to blacken (ti:l-tik "black")
	tuma:waya		to get fat (tuma:wa-k "fat")
	tutu:niya		to get hot (tutu:ni-k "hot")
	tsitsi:kaya		to be(come) silent
	tsupe:liya		to become sweet (tsupe:le-k "sweet")
	yama:niya		to become bland (yama:ni-k "bland")
	ye:ktiya		to improve, get fixed (ye:k "good")
	
3.7.8.3.3. -ti "to become".  The final kind of inchoative takes the suffix -ti which is not productive, but which derives inchoative verbs from some noun roots.  The examples are:
	
	ta:ka-ti			to grow up (ta:ka-t "man")
	kukua-wits-ti		to prick (kuku(a) "pain" + wits- "thorn")
	teki-ti			to work (teki-t "work")

For a detailed discussion of inchoative verbs in Nahua generally, cf. Canger 1980.
	3.7.8.4. 'Passives' (-l, -lu, -lw-, and -ua).  Although these passive suffixes are no longer productive, Pipil has many passive verbs of this kind derived from actives.  The most common type has -lu.  From this comes the -l suffix which derives nouns from passive verbs (e.g. ta-kwa-l "food", ta- 'something' + kwa "to eat" + -l 'passive nominalization'; literally "something that is eaten"; cf. section 3.1.3.10).  The -ua class of passive verbs is smaller.  With this suffix, preceding s and ts are palatalized to x and ch respectively (cf. section 2.2).  Verbs derived from others with these suffixes have meanings that are either passive or intransitive reflexive.  Some examples are:
	
	ahkamacha:lua		to yawn (cf. kamachal "jaw")
	(i)hkwilua		to write
	i:xpanua		to place before (cf. i:xpan "before")
	i:xtapachua		to turn over (cf. tapach "shell")
	kimilua		to wrap (cf. kimil "bundle")
	kwah-kwalu		to be exhausted (cf. kwa "to eat")
	kwalu			to be insect-infested (cf. kwa "to eat")
	kwalu me:ts-ti		for the moon to eclipse (cf. kwalu)
	pahsulua		for hair to be mussed (cf. pahsul "nest")
	pitsakua		to make thinner (cf. pitsa(:wa)k "thin"
	pixua			to lay eggs (cf. piya "to have" (?))
	sa:lua			to stick, glue (cf. sasa:lik "sticky")
	ta:wilua		to light 9cf. ta:wil "light")
	taxkalua		to make tortillas (cf. taxkal "rigua")
	tsapalua		to get down (cf. tsapa-tsin "short")
	tsitsinua		to break into pieces (cf. tsin "base"?)
	mu-tsukulua		to squat (cf. tsukul "lump")
	ululua			to roll (cf. ulul-nah "round")  

	3.7.8.5. 'Applicatives' (-lia (and -iltia)).  In Nahua studies, 'applicative' is the traditional name for the suffix which indicates that the verb permits three arguments, subject, direct object, and indirect object, with the meaning "someone (subject) does (verb) something (direct object) for or against someone (indirect object, 'applicative' suffix). The basic form of the 'applicative' suffix is -lia, but like the passive, this, too, historically contained an i which sometimes causes the root vowel to change to i and palatalizes /s/ and /ts/ to /x/ and /ch/, respectively.  Some examples are:
	
	kuwilia			to buy for (kuwa "to buy")
	kwepilia		to return something to someone (kwepa "to return")
	pahpa:kilia		to laugh at (pa:ki "to ;laugh")
	tapatilia		to change something for someone (pati "to change")
	petstilia		to undress someone (mu-petstia "to undress")
	takwi:kalia		to sing for (takwi:ka "to sing")
	mu-tate:muwiliato 	look for something for someone te:mua "to look for")
	tepe:wilia		to pile on for (tepe:wa "to pile")
	tetilia			to tie tight on (tete-k "tight")
	tsahtsalia		to shout to, to call someone something (tsahtsi "to shout")	wi:kilia		to owe someone something (wi:ka "to take")

A variant form of the 'applicative', -ltia, occurs with a few verbs; -lwia in one case:

	takwiltia      		to loan someone something (takwi "to borrow")
	tane:wiltia    		to lend (tane:wi "to borrow")
	takwi:kalwia  	 	to sing something for someone (takwi:ka "to sing")

	3.7.8.6. 'Diffusion' verbs (-ni/-na/-nia).  The verbs with the suffixes -ni (intransitive) and -nia/-na (transitive) have a common semantic trait, although it is difficult to specify that feature clearly.  Many of these verbs refer to sounds, others to breaking or tearing, and still others to the extension or diffusion of something.  Perhaps it is not wholly felicitous to call these all 'diffusion' verbs, but if we stretch the notion of diffusion is stretched to include sounds (which, of course, do diffuse), and if then breaking and tearing are further placed among the verbs of sound (given that sound is produced in such actions), perhaps we can speak of 'diffusion' verbs without misinterpretation.  Examples of these are:
	
	ahka:na		to blow, fan  			pusu:ni		to foam   
	chahchakwa:ni		to mash			sulu:ni		to swell
	chichina		to smoke			takipi:ni	to lightening
	chipi:ni		to drip				tapa:ni (i.v.)  	to explode
	ihkwani,		to remove			tapa:na (t.v.)  	to explode
	kahkani		to blow			tatsi:ni		to sprinkle
	kawa:ni		to shine			ta:wa:na (t.v.)  to get drunk
	kaxa:ni (i.v.)		to loosen			tikwi(:)ni	to thunder
	kaxa:nia (t.v.)  	to loosen			tila:na		to pull
	ke:luna			to break			tili:nia		to stretch
	ku:mu:ni (i.v.)  	to swarm			tsala:ni		to thunder
	ku:mu:nia (t.v.) 	to excite			tsaya:na	to split
	kupi:ni			to come off			tsikwi:ni	to jump
	kupi:na			to tear off			tsilini		to ring
	kutu:na			to cut				tsupina		to sting, stick
	kuwa:na		to shrink			tsutsu:na	to play music
	kuyuna (t.v.)		to make hole  			tsuyu:ni	to fry
	kuyuni (i.v.)		for a hole to form 		uchpa:na	to sweep
	kwala:ni		to get angry  			uli:ni (i.v.)	to stir, move
	pala:ni			to rot				uli:nia (t.v.)  	to stir, move
	pata:ni			to fly
	paya:na		to grind corn 			wawa:na	to scrape
				    (first pass)                
	pehpena		to pick up
	(peh)petu:ni		to slip, slide
	pipina			to suck	  
	pitsinia			to tighten
	puchi:na		to unsew

	3.7.8.7. 'Repetitives' of 'diffusion' verbs (-ka 'intransitive', -tsa 'transitive').  Related to the 'diffusion' verbs (ending in -ni, -na, -nia) are the 'repetitive' verbs. These end in -ka when intransitive, in -tsa for transitives.  Some examples with comparisons are:

	tsili:ni			ihtsilika		ihtsilitsa
	“to ring”		“to tremble”		“to shake, ring”
	ke:luna			keke:lutsa
	“to break”		“to stir, shake”
	kwala:ni		kwakwalaka		kwakwalatsa
	“to get angry”		“to boil”		“to boil”
	mimilaka	
	“to burn”	
	mulu:ni					mumulutsa
	“for dust to fly”				“to smoke”
	pata:ni			papataka	
	“to fly”		“to flap”	
				pupuluka	
				“to stutter”	
				puputuka	
				“to smell good”	
	pusu:ni			pupusuka	
	“to foam”		“to foam”	
	xi:ni			ta-xi:ka	
	“to sprinkle”		“to drip”	
				tsitsinaka	
				“to sparkle”	
				yuyumaka	
				“to itch”

(Compare also wa:ki (i.v.) “to dry” and wa:tsa (t.v.) “to dry”.)

	In the next chapter, longer verbal constructions are considered, including complex aspect forms, incorporated objects, auxiliaries, irregular forms, and some additional derivations.

3.7.9. Verb stems. In this section, peculiarities of verb stems and their formation are considered (c.f. Langacker 1977: 126-33).

3.7.9.1. Suppletion.  The following are the irregular or suppletive verbs presented with their more essential paradigmatic forms:

1) 	 to go
	ni-yaw			I go, I’m going
	ni(:)-yu		I go, I’m going
	n-yaw-a		I’m going now (ya me voy)
	ti-yaw			you go, you are going
	ti(:)-yu			you go, you are going
	t-yaw-a		you are going now (ya te vas)
	yawi			he/she/it goes, is going
	ti-yawi-t		we go, are going
	an-yawi-t		you (pl.) go, are going
	yawi-t			they go, are going

	n(i)-ya(:)h-ki		I went
	t(i)ya(:)h-ki		you went
	ya(:)h-ki		he/she/it went
	t(i)ya(:)h-ke-t		we went
	an-ya(:)h-ke-t		you (pl.) went
	ya(:)h-ke-t		they went
	
	n(i)ya(:)h-tuk		I have gone
	t(i)ya(:)h-tuk		you have gone
	ya(:)h-tuk		he/she/it has gone
	t(i)ya(:)h-tiwit		we have gone
	an-ya(:)h-tiwit		you (pl.) have gone
	ya(:)h-tiwit		they have gone

	n(i)-ya:-s		I will go
	t(i)-ya:-s		you will go
	ya:-s			he/she/it will go
	t(i)-ya:-ske-t		we will go
	an-ya:-ske-t		you (pl.) will go
	ya:-ske-t		they will go

	x-aw-a			go now, go away now!
	x-u			go, go away!
	x-awi-t(-a)		go (now), go away (now) (pl.)

2) 	to come
		
	ni-w:its		I come, am coming
	ti-w:its			you come, are coming
	w:its			he/she/it comes, is coming
	ti-w:its-et		we come, we are coming
	an-w:its-et		you (pl.) come, are coming
	w:its-et	they 		come, are coming

	ni-wa:lah		I came
	ti-wa:lah		you came
	wa:lah			he/she/it came
	ti-wa:la:h-ke-t		we came
	an-wa:la:h-ke-t	you (pl.) came
	wa:la:h-ke-t		they came

	ni-wa:la:h-tuk		I have come
	ti-wa:la:h-tuk		you have come
	wa:la:h-tuk		he/she/it has come
	ti-wa:la:h-tiwit		we have come
	an-wa:la:h-tiwit	you (pl.) have come
	wa:la:h-tiwit		they have come

	xiwi			come!
	xiwi-kan		come (you pl.)!
	
3)	 to see (C)
	
	ni-k-ida		I see it
	ti-k-ida			you see it
	k-ita			he/she/it sees it (gita?)
	ti-k-ida-t		we see it
	k-ita-t			they see it

	ni-k-ida-k		I saw it
	k-ita-k			he/she/it saw it (gitak)

	ni-k-its-tuk		I have seen it
	ti-k-its-tiwit		we have seen it
	k-its-tuk		he/she/it has seen it

	Some of the verb forms are suppletive since they occur in only one tense, lacking the other forms that other verbs have:

	se:n-kak		to be together
	mu-ets-tuk		to be sitting
	ihka-tuk		to be standing

	It is probable that these forms actually function like predicate adjectives after Ø-copula.  Nevertheless, they seem to be verbs in that they bear verbal morphology (mu- ‘reflexive’, -tuk ‘perfect’), while lacking other forms of a verbal paradigm.

	3.7.9.2. Reduplication. Stem reduplication of the form CoVh- with stems beginning in CoV(:) is found in nouns (3.1.4), Verbs (3.7.5), and Adjectives (3.6.6).  These indicate ‘plural’ in each case; with verbs it signals plural objects or repeated (iterative) action.  The ‘diffusion’ verbs are reduplicated without the h (see 3.7.8.7 for details).  In some special cases certain prefixes are also reduplicated (cf. possessive pronominal prefixes (3.1.2.1) and ta- (3.7.4.2.2)).

	3.7.10. Incorporation. The verb can incorporate certain categories to form new single-word bases. These include object nouns, instrumental nouns, and adjectives. (The ‘directional’ –(w)al is, in effect, also incorporated, though it is taken here to be primarily a verbal category to begin with; its origin from wa:lah “came” bears no relationship to its current status in the grammar; cf. 3.7.6.1).  None of these kinds of incorporation is really productive anymore.  Each kind will be described and illustrated.

	3.7.10.1. Adjective Incorporation. Adjective incorporation is quite rare, but there are a few cases:
	1) mu-yehye:k-chiwa		for the clothes to turn out all  right (ye:k- "good", chiwa 						"to make")
	2) -kek-chiwa,			to fix (ye:k "good", chiwa "to make")
		-yek-chiwa	  
	3) -kwe:l-pachua		to fold (kwe:l- "bent", pachua "to hold down")
	4) sek-kalaki			to get cold (sek- "cold", kalaki "to enter")
	5) se:m-pu:tsua		to pile together (se:n- 'together, one', pu:tsua "to pile")	6) se:n-takwa			to eat together (se:n- 'together, one', takwa "to eat")		7) se:n-ta:lia			to meet, unite (se:n- 'together, one', ta:lia "to put, sit") 
	8) se:n-talua			to water, scatter (se:n- 'together, one', talua "to run")
	9) se:n-temu			to come down together (se:n- 'together, one', temu "to 						descend")
	10) se:n-tepe:wa		to pile up (se:n- 'together, one' tepe:wa "to pile")
	11) ta-pitsak-xini		to sprinkle, shower (pits(a:w)ak "thin", xini "to scatter")
	
3.7.10.2. Instrumental noun incorporation. 	Pipil has so-called "instrumental prefixes", but much less extensively than some other Uto-Aztecan languages. The instrumental prefix is basically an incorporated noun, usually a body-part term, which semantically signals the instrument by which the action of the verb is realized. These have been called instrumental prefixes because in some languages the incorporated elements appear in a changed, abbreviated form somewhat different from the full nouns from which they are derived. (Pipil also has such changed forms, but with incorporated objects, rather than these instrumental forms (see below)) The few examples appear to be frozen; they are:

	1) tan-kwa			to bite (tan- "tooth", kwa "to eat")
	2) mu-tankwa-ketsa		to kneel (tankwa ('knee'), ketsa"to stand")
	3) ikxi-ahsi			to reach, catch up with (ikxi "foot", ahsi to "arrive, 							find")
	4) kwa:ch-ki:xtia		to strain, sift (kwa:ch- "cloth", ki:xtia "to take out")
	5) te-tsikwini			to cross the river on rocks (te-"rock", tsikwini "to 							jump")
	6) mu-tu:nal-tatia		to sun (tu:nal "sun", tatia "to burn")
	
3.7.10.3. Object incorporation.  Like other Uto-Aztecan and many native American languages, Nahua varieties can incorporate an object noun directly into the verb. Such incorporated objects have a generic or non-specific sense. English does not really have this kind of incorporation, but examples such as to proofread (read proof), to babysit (sit babies), to deerhunt (?) (hunt deer), and to barhop (hop bars) give a good idea of the construction. In Pipil it is no longer productive and most of the forms are frozen; for that reason, some examples were included in the section on verb compounds (cf 4.6.2). The most common are the cases with a bodypart term incorporated. Cases in which the incorporated element occurs in a special form different from its independent nominal counterpart are signaled by single quotes ('...') which otherwise are employed to mark grammatical elements as opposed to lexical material (marked with double quotes ("...")). 
	Some examples with regular incorporated nouns are:
		
	a:ma-ita		to read (a:ma- "book", ita "to see")
	ich-ma:lini (SD)	to twist string (ich "string", ma:lini "to twist")
	i:x-kukul-ita		to give the "evil eye" (i:x "eye", -kukul- ita "to see")
	kalaki			to enter (kal "house", (aki) "enter")
	mu-kal-tapa:na	for a crab to to make a cave (kal "house", tapa:na "to break 						open") 
	mu-kal-tsakwa		to enclose (kal "house", tsakwa "to close")
	ku:-tapa:na		to split firewood (ku:- 'wood', tapa:na "to break open") 	mahmahtsal-kutu:na 	to cut branches (mahtsal "branch", kutu:na "to cut")
	mu:mu:yu-pe:wia	to swat flies (mu:yu- "fly", pe:wia "to hunt")
	nex-kalaki		for corn to be soaked through with ash (nex "ash", kalaki "to 					enter") 
	nex-ketsa		to cook nixtamal (nex "ash", ketsa "to raise")
	ta:ka-mati		to obey (ta:ka- "man", mati "to know")
	ta:l-i:xkupi:ni		for land to slide (ta:l "land", i:x- 'face', kupi:ni "to come off, to 					cave in")
	ta:l-pachua		to bury (ta:l "ground, earth", pachua "to hold down")
	ta:l-uli:ni		for the earth to quake (ta:l "earth", uli:ni "to move, stir")
	tehte-mima		to stone (te- "stone", mima "to throw")
	teki-maka		to employ, give work to (teki "work", maka "to give")
	teki-panua		 to sustain oneself (teki "work", panu "to pass")
	ti-maka		 to light (fire) (ti- "fire", maka "to give")
	mu-yakatsul-ki:xtia 	to blow one's nose (yakatsul "mucus", ki:xtia "to get out").

Some examples with incorporated body-part objects are:
	
	mu-ihti-a:paka		to wash one's belly (ihti- "belly", a:paka "to wash")
	ihti-sulu:ni		for one's stomach to swell (ihti "belly", sulu:ni "to swell") 
	mu-kxi-pa:ka		to wash one's feet ((i)kxi "foot", pa:ka "to wash")
	mu-ikxi-chalua	to stumble ((i)kxi "foot", chalua "to hit")
	i:x-kehketsa		to think, remember (i:x "eye",'face', ketsa "to raise, stand")
	i:x-ketsa		to lift (i:x "eye",'face', ketsa "to raise")
	i:x-kwepa		to turn over (i:x 'face', kwepa "to return")
	i:x-mati		to know (someone), recognize (i:x 'face', mati "to know") 
	i:x-ma:ti:lua		to finish, plaster (i:x 'face', ma:ti:lua "to smooth, finish") 
	i:x-mimilua		to revolve (i:x 'face', mimilua "to roll")
	mu-i:x-mu:tia		to be frightened (i:x 'face', mu:tia "to frighten")
	i:x-pahpa:ki		to be happy, smile (i:x 'face', pa:ki "to be happy")
	i:x-pa:ka,		to wash (dishes)
	mu-i:x-pa:ka		to wash one's face (i:x 'face', pa:ka "to wash")
	i:x-pehpena		to choose (i:x 'face', pehpena "to pick up")
	i:x-pe:lua		to open wider (i:x 'face', pe:lua "to open")
	i:x-pilua		to bend, squat (i:x 'face', pilua "to hang")
	i:x-pitsa		to blow (i:x 'face', pitsa "to blow (whistle)")
	i:x-pulua		to lose, get lost (i:x 'face', pulua "to lose")
	i:x-pupuchwia		to smoke (something) (i:x 'face', pupuchwia "to smoke")
	i:x-pu:pu:wa		to clean one's face (i:x 'face', pu:pu:wa "to clean")
	i:x-puya:wi		to get dizzy, faint (i:x 'face')
	i:x-tapachua		to turn upside-down (i:x 'face', tapach "shell")
	i:x-te:miki		to dream (i:x "eye", 'face', te:miki "to dream")
	i:x-tu:ka		to insert (i:x "eye", 'face', tu:ka "to bury")
	i:x-tsaya:na		to break up (i:x 'face', tsaya:na "to split")
	i:x-wa:ki		to dry up (i:x 'face', wa:ki "to dry")
	i:x-yu:l-kwi		to revive (i:x 'face', yu:l-kwi "to revive")
	kech-kupi:na		to tear off the head (kech "neck", kupi:na "to tear out, off") 	kech-kutu:na		to decapitate, cut off the head (kech "neck", kutu:na "to cut")
	ku:-naka		to stick, get stuck (ku:- 'head', naka "to stay")
	mu-ku:-pachua	to put something on top of, to hold down (ku:- 'head', pachua 					"to hold down") 
	ku:-sama:wa		to have gooseflesh (ku:- 'head', sama:wa "to abound")
	ku:-suwa		to bead, insert (ku:- 'head', suwa"to stretch out")
	kwa:-tapa:na		to split open the forehead (kwa:- 'forehead', tapa:na "to burst") 	kwa:-tsaya:na		to split the forehead (kwa:- 'head', tsaya:na "to split") 
	mahma:-kutu:na	to cut branches, hands (ma:- 'hand', kutu:na "to cut")
	mahma:-tu:ka		to walk by feeling (ma:- 'hand', tu:ka "to bury, plant")
	ma:-pa:ka		to wash one's hands (ma:- 'hand', pa:ka "to wash")
	ma:-pe:lua		to open one's hands, pinchers (ma:- 'hand', pe:lua "to open")
	ma:-tu:ka		to touch, feel (ma:- 'hand', tu:ka "to bury, plant")
	mu-te:m-pa:ka		to wash one's mouth (te:n "mouth", pa:ka "to wash")
	mu-te:m-pe:lua	to yawn, open one's mouth (te:n "mouth", pe:lua "to open")
	te:n-chichina		to kiss (te:n "mouth", chichina "to suck")
	ta-te:n-na:miki  	to kiss (te:n "mouth", na:miki "to meet, encounter")
	mu-tsin-a:paka		to wash one's buttocks/anus (tsin "buttocks, anus", a:paka "to 					wash") 
	tsin-ketsa		to stand on end, to copulate with (tsin "base, butt" ketsa "to 						stand") 
	tsin-ku:ti:ya		to tire of sitting (tsin "buttocks", ku:ti:ya "to tire")
	tsin-kutu:na		to cut something with a base (tsin "base, buttocks", kutu:na "to 					cut") 
	tsin-na:maka		to be a prostitute (tsin "buttocks, anus", na:maka "to sell")
	mu-tsin-ta:lia		to crouch, walk crouching (tsin "buttocks", ta:lia "to place, sit") 	tsin-temultia		to come back down, to reverse (tsin "base, buttocks", temultia 				"to lower") 
	mu-tsin-tu:ka		to squat (tsin "buttocks", tu:ka "to bury, plant")
	mu-tsum-pa:ka	to wash one's head (tsun 'head', pa:ka "to wash")
	tsum-pe:peta		to get the fleas out (tsun 'head', pe:peta "to check, search")              	tsum-pilua		to squat, put one's head down (tsun 'head', pilua "to hang")
	mu-tsun-ahwilia  	to wet one's head (tsun 'head', ahwilia "to wet, dampen")
	tsun-chalua		to mash (tsun 'head', chalua "to hit")
	tsun-tapa:na		to break open one's head (tsun 'head', tapa:na "to burst")
	tsun-teki		to injure, wound (with a machete) (tsun 'head', teki "to cut")
	tsun-tisi		to grind (coffee, rice) (tsun 'head', tisi "to grind") 
	mu-tsun-yul-i:xkwepa	to do a somersault (tsun 'head', yu(:)l "heart", i:x-kwepa "to 				turn around")
	mu-yaka-pitsa		to blow one's nose (yaka- 'nose', pitsa "to blow")

(Cf. also section 4.6.2.)

Chapter 4

Syntax
4.0		Introduction
	
	This description of Pipil syntax is not intended as an examination of the minor syntactic details nor of the profoundly complicated formal questions that so fascinate many modern grammarians. Its goal is, rather, to provide basic information concerning the structure of sentences and the function of certain syntactic categories, and compounds. The topics considered and their order of presentation follows Langacker (1977), except that more morphological topics were covered in the last chapter.  Many of the examples are taken from the texts of chapter 7; these are marked with a letter and number code, the letter to indicate the text and the number for the line within it (for details, see chapter 7).  
	
4.1		Word order  
	
	In traditional parlance it would be said that Pipil word order is "relatively free"; in the case of Pipil this means that it is pragmatically determined, depending on focus and on topic-comment arrangements.  First the order of sentential elements in simple declarative sentences will be described, and then these orders will be illustrated with examples. It is to be kept in mind that the verb bears pronominal affixes which cross-reference subjects and objects, and when these are pronominal, the sentence may lack any other indication of these arguments, relying solely on the subject and object pronominal prefixes to signal these roles. The most natural, least marked order intransitive sentences is: 
			
Verb-Subject (VS)

Example sentences with Intransitive Verb and its subject are:
1) 		ya:h-ki ka-dentroh ne ta:ka-tsin. (N-23)
		go-PRET in-inside the man-DIMIN.
		"The little man went inside."

2) 		mu-tamu:ta ne tsuntekuma-t. (N-33) 
		REFLEX-throw the skull.
		"The skull throws itself."

3) 		miki-k ne masa:-t. (N-37) 
		die-PRET the deer.
		"The deer died."

4) 		al fin de tanto wa:ki-k ne masa:-t. (N-43) 
		In the end dry-PRET the deer.
		"In the end the deer dried up."

5) 		ya:h-ki ne tengerecheh. (N-127) 
		go-PRET the lizard. 
		"The lizard went."

6)		mu-kwep-ki ne tengerechul. (N-129)
		REFLEX-return-PRET the lizard.
		"The lizard returned."

7) 		ni:kan naka-k ne tehitah. (N-131) 
		here stay-PRET the small tile.
		"The small tile stayed here."

8) 		ne: tami-k ne tan-tepus-lama. (N-140)
		There terminate-PRET the tooth-iron-old woman. 
		"The Iron-toothed-old-woman ended there."

9)		 yawi-t-a wi:ts-et ne nu-pila:-wan-tsi-tsin. (R-21) 
		go-PL-already come-PL the my-son-PL POSS-PL DIMIN. 
		"My little sons are going to come now."

10) 	mu-chih-ki alegrar ne piltsin-tsin. (R-26)
		REFLEX-do-PRET rejoice the boy-DIMIN.
		"The little boy rejoiced."

The most common neutral order for transitive sentences is:
			
Verb-Object-Subject (VOS)

VOS order is taken as basic because it occurs with the greatest frequency in texts and conversation, and it is the only order for transitive sentences which is neutral with respect to focus and emphasis (see below).  This is a relatively rare order in the world's languages and deviates from the VSO basic order of Classical Nahuatl and most other extant Nahua dialects.  Since neighboring Xincan and Mayan languages have VOS basic order, one wonders whether Pipil has been influenced by these in any way (cf. Campbell 1978).  

A few examples of transitive verbs with both subject and object:
		
1) 		ki-ta:lih ne i-chaketah ne ta:ka-tsin. (N-23)
		it-place the his-jacket the man-DIMIN.
		"The little man put down his jacket."

2) 		mitsin-maka-tuk ne konse:hoh ne chimpe. (N-121) 
		you pl.-give-PERF the advice the youngest son. 
		"The youngest son has given you (pl.) the advice.

3)  		kin-maka-k pwestoh ne prinsipeh ne se:yuk pih-pi:pil-met. (R-56)
		them-give-PRET office the prince the other PL-boy-PL. 
		"The prince gave the other boys (a) position."
4) 		ki-chih-ke-t ne ti:-t ne pipil-tsi-tsin. 
		(C) it-make-PRET-PL the fire-ABSOL the boy-PL-DIMIN.
		"The boys made the fire".

5) 		ki-miktih ne wa:kax ne ta:ka-t. 
		(C) it-kill the cow the man-ABSOL.
		"The man killed the cow."
	
	The orders: Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) Verb-Subject-Object (VSO) also occur, but with less frequency.  The order SVO is used specifically to place greater emphasis on the subject.  The VSO order is rare except when the object is "heavy", i.e. when it contains a relative clause or a coordinate noun phrase. In this way Pipil conforms to the word-order universal that has been postulated for VOS languages that a "heavy" object is not permitted and is usually shifted to the end, giving VSO with heavy objects as a very common corally order in basically VOS languages (cf. Campbell and Mithun 1981).
	The following are examples of other orders of transitive verb sentences which have both an overt sujbect and object.  The first two illustrate VSO with "heavy" objects. The third and fourth are cases of VSO with the object bearing emphasis. The final two are SVO sentences in which the subject is emphasized.

1) 		VSO:  te: ki-kwah pe:lu ne uh-u:mi-t nike ne plumah. 
			(H-14) ["Heavy" object = coordinate noun phrase]
			no it-ate dog the PL-bone-ABSOL nor the feather(s).
			"(The) dog didn't eat the bones nor the feathers."

2)  		VSO:  ki-ahsi-k ne alkalteh ne mache ka ki-puluh-tuk hwan. 
			(C) ["heavy" object = relative clause]
			it-find-PRET the mayor the machete that it-lose-PERF Juan. 
			"The mayor found the machete that Juan had lost."

3)  		VSO:  	k-al-wi:ka i-na:n uk na:wi pan ombron. (A-17) [object emphasis]
			him-DIR-take his-mother other four bread big.
			"His mother brings him another four large breads."

4)  		VSO:   k-al-i:ka-t ne ye:y pipil-tsi-tsin se: in-mih-michin-tsi-tsin. (R-23) [object 				emphasis] 
			it-DIR-bring-PL the three boy-PL-DIMIN a their-PL-fish-PL-DIMIN. 
			"The three little boys brought some little fish."

5) 		SVO: 	ne i-siwa:-w ki-miktih ne chumpipi. (H-12) [subject emphasis]
			the his-wife-POSS it-killed the turkey.
			"His wife killed the turkey."
	
	Intransitive sentences, on the other hand, rarely deviate from the basic Verb-Subject (VS) order.  The combination Verb-Object (VO) is found often in transitive sentences in which the subject is pronominal and hence signaled by a verb prefix. Similarly, the order Verb-Subject (VS) also occurs in transitive sentences when the object is pronominal and marked with prefixes on the verb.
	A few examples of verb-initial transitive sentences which lack independent subjects or objects, these being signaled by pronominal prefixes, are:
		
1) 		VO: 	ki-chiw-ki ne komidah. (H-12)
			it-made-PRET the food.
			"She made the food."
		
2) 		VO: 	kiya ne: ki-wi:ka-ke-t ne siwa:pil. (H-29)
			thus there her-take-PRET-PL the girl.
			"Thus they took the girl there."

3)  		VO:  	k-i:xtia tik i-ma:ta-w grandes plastas. (A-19) 
			it-remove in his-net-POSS big cowpies. 
			"He gets large cowpies out from his net-bag."
		
4) 		VO: 	ah, nin n-al-wi:ka se: siwa:-t. (S-15)
			Oh, here I-DIR-take a woman-ABSOL.
			"Oh, here I bring a woman."

5) 		VO: 	ki-maka-t se: konse:hoh. (N-7) 
			him-give-PL an advice.
			"They gave him advice."

6) 		VO: 	ki-nu:tsa ne i-xu:leh-yu.(N-12) 
			him-speak the her-old man-INT POSS. 
			"She speaks to her husband."

7) 		VO:	ya:h-ki ki-tahtani se:yuk konse:hoh. (N-17) 
			go-PRET it-ask another advice.
			"He went to ask for more advice."

8) 		VO: 	ni-k-maka-k chi:l. (N-29) 
			I-her-give-PRET chili.
			"I gave her chili."

9) 		VO: 	ki-neki-t ki-kwa-t ne naka-t. (N-40) 
			it-want-PL it-eat-PL the meaat-ABSOL.
			"They want to eat the meat."

10) 	VO: 	ki-pix-ki se: i-ta:kil. (N-52) 
			it-have-PRET one his-fruit.
			"He had one (of) his fruit[s]."

11) 	VO: 	ki-kwa-t ne takwal. (N-80)
			it-eat-PL the food.
			"They eat the food."

12) 	VS:  	kieneh nech-chiw-tuk kontar nu-tatanoy. (H-32) 
			thus me-do-PERF tell my-grandfather.
			"Thus my grandfather has told me."

13) 	VS: 	ya:h-ki k-ita ne lamah-tsin.  (N-61) 
			go-PRET it-see the old woman-DIMIN.
			"The little old woman went to see it."
		
14) 	VS: 	ki-a:n-ki ne i-na:n. (R-43)
			it-pick up-PRET the his-mother.
			"His mother picked it up."
	
	The orders OV and SV also occur, but only to emphasize the object or the subject, respectively. The following are some examples:
		
1) 		OV:  	mas bien i-kwit turuh ni-k-kwah. (A-21)
			More well its-excrement cow I-it-ate.
			"Rather I ate cow's excrement."
		
2) 		OV:  	ne nu-sapatus n-yu ni-k-tamu:ta. (R-41)
			the my-shoes I-go I-it-throw.
			"I'm going to throw away my shoes."
		
3) 		OV: 	ne sipiti:yuh ni-k-i:xmati nu:san. (Sip-1)
			the Sipitillo I-it-know also.
			"I know the Sipitillo too."

4) 		SV: 	nu-tatanoy nech-chiw-ki kontar. (S-2) 
			my-grandfather me-do-PRET tell.
			"My grandfather told me."

5) 		SV: 	nu-lama mitsin-chiwa nemi hoder. (N-85) 
			my-grandmother you pl.-do is screw.
			"My grandmother is screwing you (pl.)."

6) 		SV: 	kunih ne ta:ka-t ya:h-ki k-ilwitia. (H-23) 
			then the man-ABSOL go-PRET it-show.
			"Then the man went to show it."
		
7) 		SV: 	re:y ki-tasuhta. (R-2)
			king him-love.
			"(The) king loves him."
	
	When the subject is a full, independent pronoun, it always precedes the verb, i.e. Subject [=pron.]-Verb(-Object). Examples of sentences with independent pronominal subjects, which precede the verb, are:
		
1) 		na ni-k-elna:miki. (H-1)
		I I-it-remember.
		"I remember it."
		
2) 		kunih yaha ki-chiw-ki se: trampah. (H-7)
		then he it-make-PRET a trap.
		"Then he made a trap."
		
3) 		pero yehemet te: ina-ke-t la verdad. (H-17)
		but they not tell-PRET-PL the truth.
		"But they didn't tell the truth."

4)		kunih yemet ki-a:n-ke-t ne we:suh. (H-25) 
	then they it-pick up-PRET-PL the bone.
		"Then they picked up the bones."

5) 		yaha ki-neki ki-kaki cuentos. (A-2)
		he it-want it-hear stories. 
		"He wants to hear stories."

6) 		nah ni-k-ta:lia tik nu-ma:ta-w. (A-14) 
		I I-it-place in mu-net-POSS.
		"I put it in my net-bag."
		
7) 		ya nech-ilwih. (S-3)
		he me-told.
		"He told me."

8) 		naha tesu ni-ki:s-tuk. (S-34)
		I not i-leave-PERF.
		"I have not left."

9) 		na ni-k-neki-ya ni-yaw. (S-36)
		I I-it-want-already I-go.
		"I want to go now."

10) 	yaha ki-tahtan se: konse:hoh. (N-7)
		he it-asked an advice.
		"He asked for advice."

11) 	naha tesu ni-k-mati. (N-25) 
		I not I-it-know.
		"I don't know."

	In Pipil copular sentences (which typically have 0-copula), the order is: Subject-Complement, where the subject may be a noun or an independent pronoun and the complement may be a noun or adjective. The subject obligatorily precedes the complement. 

Some examples are:

1) 		mu-manuh mas bibo. (A-33) 
		your-brother more smart. 
		"Your brother (is) smarter."

2) 		yaha albolario. (A-33)
		he wizard.
		"He (is a) wizard."

3) 		ini nu-kuhkul. (S-42)
		this my-boogyman.
		"This (is) my boogyman."

4) 		ke:man yaha joven ki-kak-tuk. (S-52) 
		when he young it-hear-PERF.
		"When he (was) young (he) had heard it."
		
5) 		ne i-siwa:-w bruhah. (N-24)
		the his-wife-POSS witch.
		"His wife (was a) witch."

6) 		ini ne i-naka-yu tu-kuhkul. (N-118)
		this the its-meat-INT POSS our-boogyman. 
		"This (is) the flesh of our boogyman."

7) 		ne mu-te:lpu:ch-tsin kukuya. (R-14)
		the your-son-DIMIN sick.
		"Your little son (is) sick."
		
8) 		naha ne re:y. (R-51)
		I the king.
		"I (am) the king."
	
	The order of modifiers is clear. Adjectives precede the nouns they modify: Adjective-Noun (Adj.-N).  The few instances of N-Adj. almost all involve adjectives borrowed from Spanish – the Spanish order is N-Adj. Adverbs are freer, but they nearly always precede intransitive and follow transitive verbs:
		
	Adverb-Intransitive Verb (Adv.-i.v.)
	Transitive Verb-Adverb (t.v.-Adv.)

For examples of these orders, which are very common, see the texts of chapter 7.4.1.1. Word order conclusions. To summarize and complete the picture, Pipil has the word orders:
		
(1) i.v.-S (basic)
(2) t.v.-O-S (basic)
(3) V-S-O  (with  "heavy" objects; object emphasis)
(4) S-V-O (subject emphasis)
(5) t.v.-S (variant of (2), with object pronominal prefix) 
(6) V-O (variant of (2), with subject pronominal prefix) 
(7) Pron.S-V(-O) (basic when subject is an independent pronoun)
(8)  S-0-Complement (basic; subject may be a noun or independent pronoun, complement may be noun or adjective)
(9) Noun Phrase (NP): (Dem) (Adj.) N (Dem = demonstrative) (for examples, cf. chapter 7, texts)
(10) Verb Phrase (VP): (Adv.)i.v. / t.v. (Adv)(O). (Cf. chapter 7, texts, for examples.)

4.1.2.	Pronominal indirect objects.
		
		As indicated in section 3.2.3, pronominal objects prefixes function most often to indicate direct objects, but signal indirect objects as well. In either case, the verb may bear only one object prefix. In the case of indirect pronominal objects, there is often an independent noun phrase direct object or clear contextual clues as to the pronoun's role with respect to the verb. It may be that the indirect object function of these pronominal affixes has been influenced by Spanish, which like English has the same pronominal forms for both indirect  and direct objects in many cases, e.g. me pego "he hit me", me dio el libro "he gave me the book". In cases where both the direct and indirect objects are pronominal, it is usually the indirect object that is marked on the verb, with the direct object signaled as a full independent pronoun (cf. 3.5.2). One possible interpretation of this is that animate cases are given priority, since usually the indirect objects are animate. Some examples of pronominal prefixes as markers of indirect objects are:
		
1) 		nech-ahkaw-ilih-ke-t tumin.
		me-leave-APPLIC-PRET-PL money.
		"They left me (the) money."
		
2) 		ni-yu ni-mitsin-maka se: pwestoh. (R-54)
		I-go I-you pl.-give a position. 
		"I am going to give you (pl.) a position."
		
3) 		nech-ilwia.
		me-tell.
		"(She) tells me."

4)  		kin-maka-k pwestoh ne prinsipeh ne se:yuk pih-pi:pil-met. (R-56)
		them-give-PRET position the prince the other PL-boy-PL.
		"The prince gave [to them] the other boys (a) position.
		
5) 		ne i-ixwiyu-wan te:-ya su kin-maka ne takwal. (N-83)
		the her-grandchild-POSS PL no-now no them-give the food. 
		"She no longer gives her grandchildren the food."
		
6) 		ki-maka-ke-t ti:-t ne kal. (N-139)
		it-give-PRET-PL fire-ABSOL the house.
		"They set the house on fire."

7)  		naha propyo ne chu:le-t nech-chiw-tuk kontar. (A-29)
		I self the old man-ABSOL me-do-PERF tell. 
		"(To) me myself the old man has told me (it)." = "The old man has told (it to) me 			myself."

4.2 	"To be" 
	
		While nemi is the basic verb "to be", Pipil has a variety of constructions which express the notions of "to be". Someof these have already been considered, others are presented here.
	
	4.2.1. 	Pronominal copula.  Equational constructions in which the subject is a pronoun were considered in section 3.2.2.1.  They are formed by prefixing a subject pronoun normally found on verbs to the complement, e.g. ni-ta:ka-t "I am a man".
	(Cf. section 3.2.2.1 for examples and details.)

	4.2.2. 	∅-copula. The equational copular construction has no verb; the subject typically is a noun phrase, noun, or occasionally an independent pronoun, while the complement is a noun phrase, noun, adjective, or independent pronoun.  Some examples were already seen (see 4.1.5.). A few others are:

(1) 		ne sipiti:yuh chikitik-chín, ma: tumak ne i-xumpe. (Sip-2)
		the sipitillo small-DIMIN but large the his-hat.
		"The Sipitillo (is) little, but his hat (is) very big."

(2) 		ne tsuntekuma-t chikitik, pero tumak i-tsuntekun. (SD)
		the skull-ABSOL small but big his-head.
		"The "Skull" (is) small, but his head (is) very large.
	
4.2.3. Locational nemi. For "to be somewhere, in some place", the verb nemi is used with locatives, as for example:
	
1)		ki-mat-ki ka:n nemi ne i-siwa:pil-tsin. (N-48)
		it-know-PRET where is the her-girl-DIMIN.
		"(She) knew where her little girl was."

2)		pero ni:kan nemi ne nu-chi:chiwal. (N-50)
		but here is the my gourd.
		"But here is my gourd."

3) 		ne: nemi ne xu:re-tsin. (R-10) 
		there is the old man-DIMIN. 
		"There is the little old man."

4) 		ni:kan nemi-t ne i-amigitus. (R-44) 
		here is-PL the his-little friends. 
		"Here are his little friends."

5) 		ni-k-mati ka:n nemi nu-te:ku, ka:n nemi nu-na:n. (A-4) 
		I-it-know where is my-father, where is my-mother.
		"I know where my father is, where my mother is." 
	
6) 		i-na:n wan i-te:ku ne: tik arkuh nemi-t. (A-2)
		his-mother and his-father there in arch is-PL.
		"His mother and his father are there in (the) arch."

4.2.4. 'Existential' nemi. The verb nemi is also used to express "there is", "there are", "exists". It functions very much like Spanish hay, "there is/are", including sometimes its singular form with plural nouns. Some examples are:
	
1) 		nemi miyak tah-ta:ka-met tik te:chan. (SD)
		is many PL-man-PL in town.
		"There are many men in town."

2) 		tesu nemi miyak tah-ta:ka-met tik te:chan. (SD) 
		no is many PL-man-PL in town.
		"There are not many men in town."

3) 		siyuhti nemi-k se: ta:ka-t intelihenteh. (H-6) 
		once is-PERT one man-ABSOL intelligent.
		"Once there was an intelligent man."
	
4) 		pan nemi we:y. (A-13)
		bread is lots.
		"There is a lot of bread."

5) 		ki-mati ka nemi tsuntekuma-t, wan nemi siwa:nawal. (S-53)
		it-know that is skull-ABSOL, and is llorona.
	"(He) knows that (the) "Skull" exists, and (that the) Llorona exists".
	
	4.2.5. Other "to be" cases. 
	
	4.2.5.1. Emphatic states. Nemi can be used in contexts which normally take ∅-copula in order to show more empahsis on the resultant state, e.g.:

1) 		ke:n nemi i-se:l-tsin ne i-te:lpu:ch-tsin ... (R-2)
		since is him-alone-DIMIN the her-son-DIMIN ...
		"Since her little son is all alone ... "

2) 	n-yu ni-nemi deskalsoh  ke:n-a nemi-t ne nu-amigitus. (R-42)
	"I am going to be barefoot just like my little friends are".

	4.2.5.2. "To be" questions. Some "to be" questions are:

			ka(h) taha 		Who are you?
			ka uni 			Who is it?
			ka:n nemi		Where is it?
			ke:n ti-nemi 		How are you?
(For more details and for other questions, see section 4.4.)

	4.2.5.3. Irregular "to be" forms. Some irregular forms which function as adjectives with the sense of "to be" are:
			se:n-kak 		to be together (cf. se:(n) "one, together") 
			mu-ets-tuk (C),	to be seated
			     mu-es-tuk (SD) 
			ihka-tuk 		to be standing

		A construction with ∅ is also found in the cleft sentences (cf. 4.16); other nemi constructions include its auxiliary function in 'progressives' (see 4.20.1). (Cf. also the -ti 'inchoative' suffix, 3.7.8.3.3.) 

4.3.	Non-distinct arguments 
	
		The concept of non-distinctness refers to transitive sentences in which the subject and direct object are either coreferential or one of these arguments (subject or direct object) is not specified. The kinds of 'non-distinct' arguments are passives, reflexives, impersonals, and unspecified direct-object markers (cf. Langacker 1977:46-8). Many of these forms were already considered in the morphology (chapter 3); for 'reflexives' (-mu-) cf. 3.7.4.1, for the 'unspecified object' markers, see 3.7.4.2. (both te:- human and ta- nonhuman); passive verb morphology (-lu-, -ua) was treated in 3.7.8.4. 
		There is also an impersonal construction formed of 'third personal plural' verbs (i.e. with the suffix -t) where the subject is not otherwise specified, meaning, e.g. "fish are eaten in Japan", that is equivalent to English "they" in "they eat fish in Japan". For example:
		
1) 		nech-tawilih-ke-t ne pe:lu.
		me-give-PRET-PL the dog.
		"They gave me the dog." = "I was given the dog."
		
2) 		de mala swerte ki-mu:tia-t.
		of bad luck him frighten-PL.
		"Unfortunately they frightened him." = "Unfortunately, he was frightened."
		
3) 		yaha ki-tahtan se: konse:hoh wan ki-maka-ke-t.
		he it-asked an advice and it-give-PRET-PL.
		"He asked for advice and they gave it (to him)." = "He asked for advice and was 			given it."

3)		k-ilwih-ke-t ma: ki-ma:walti chi:l. 
	him-tell-PRET-PL that her-smear chili. 
		"They told him to annoint her (with) chili." = "He was told to smear chili on her."
	
5) 		nech-ilwih-ke-t ka nu-siwa:-w bru:hah. (N-25)
		me-tell-PRET-PL that my-wife-POSS witch.
		"They told me that my wife (was a) witch." = "I was told my wife is a witch."

4.4. Questions
	
		4.4.1. Yes-no questions. Yes-no questions are basically as in Spanish, with rising intonation, but with no particular word-order changes. A few examples are:
	
1) 		ta tesu ti-sekmiki?
		what no you-feel cold?
		"Don't you feel cold?"
	
2) 		ti-k-piya we:y pan? (A-12)
		you-it-have lots bread?
		"Do you have a lot of bread?"
	
3) 		uni ti-nemi? (S-22)
		that you-is?
		"Is that you?"
	
		4.4.2. Wh-questions.  Wh-questions employ the following interrogative words:
	
		anka			how much
		     anka ke:ski		how much does it cost?
		ka: (C)			who
		      kah (SD)		who
		ka: uni (C)		who is it?
		      kahuni (SD)	who is it?
		kadiya			which
		ka:nka			where (to)
		ka:n			where
		ke:man			when
		ke:n			how
		ke:nka			why
		ke:ski			how much
		     ke:ski i-patiw 	what does it cost? (i-patiw "its price") 
		ta: (C)			what
		     tay (SD)		what
		tayika			why

A few typical examples of these are:

		ka
		     ka i-chan			where, to whose house?
		     ka ke:ski			how much does it cost?
		kah-taha (SD)			who are you?
		     ka: taha (C)			who are you?
		kah wa:lah (SD)		who came?
		ka: wa:lah (C)			who came?
		ka:n nemi			where is it?
		ka:nka ti-yu			where are you going?
		ke:man ti-wa:lah		when did you come?
		ke:n ti-chih-ki (C)		how did you do it?
		     ke:n ti-chiw-ki (SD)	how did you do it?
		ke:n ti-nemi 			how are you?
		ke:nka ti-yah-tuk 		why did you go? (Why have you gone?) 
		kadiya we:l 			which (one) is it?
		kadiya we:l ti-k-a:n-ki 	which one did you take? 
		ka:n ti-yaw 			where are you going? 
		ke:n1 ti2-k-mat-ki3 ne4 naka-t5, lama6? (N-116) 
		How1 (did) you2 know(=find)3 the4 meat5, grandmother6?

4.5. Imperatives 
	
		In the morphology it was seen that the second person imperative prefix was x(i)-, other persons taking the exhortative particle ma:, with -kan (underlying -kam-) for plural persons (section 3.7.8.1). Here examples of imperatives in sentential contexts and the negative imperative construction are considered.
	
	4.5.1. Imperative and hortatory sentences. Some examples of sentences which illustrate the various imperative forms and the hortatory/subjunctive ma: are:

1) 		xi-k-ilwi ma: yawi. (SD)
		IMP-him-tell that go.
		"Tell him to go."
2) 		xi-k-ilwi (ka) te: ma: yawi. (SD)
		IMP-him-tell (that) no that go.
"		Tell him not to go." (Literally, "tell him that he not go".)
		
3) 		tesu ni-k-neki ma: xi-k-mikti. (SD)
		no I-it-want that IMP-it-kill.
		"I don't want you to kill it." = "I want that you not kill it." (Notice the 'second person 		imperative' xi- used here just as a Spanish subjunctive after a verb of "desire".)

4) 		inmediatamente ki-chih-ki ordinar i-siwa:-w ma: ki-mikti ne chumpipi pal ki-kwa-t. 		(H-11)
		immediataely her-do-PRET order his-wife-POSS that it-kill the turkey for it-eat-PL.
		"Immediately (he) ordered his wife to kill the turkey so they (could) eat it."

5) 		k-ilwih-ke-t ma: ki-ma:walti chi:l. (N-8)
		him-tell-PRET-PL that her-smear chili.
		"They told him that (he should) smear her (with) chili." = "They told him to smear her 		with chili."

6) 		a:xa:n xi-k-itski-kan tu-lama, ma: ki-panu-lti ne i-a:xi:x. (N-137)
		now IMP-her-grab-PL IMP our-grandmother, that it-pass the her-urine.
		"Now grab our grandmother; let (her) pass her urine."

7) 		ki-xi:pe:h-ke-t wan ki-maka-ke-t ne in-lama ma: ki-mana. 
		it-skin-PRET-PL and it-give-PRET-PL the  their-grandmother that it-cook. 
		"They skinned it and gave it to their grandmother to cook."

		4.5.2. Negative imperatives. Second person negative imperatives are formed with te: "no" (C) or ma:/maka (SD), plus the x(i)- imperative prefix (and -kan in the plural); this should not  be confused with the ma: 'hortatory' particle which occurs with other persons in imperative constructions (cf. section 3.7.8.1). Some examples are:

1)	ma: x-u (SD)  
		te:  xi-yu (C)             			don't go!
				
2)	te: xi-k-kwa-kan (C)         			don't eat it (you pl.)!

3) 	te: xi-k-elka:wa (C)         			don't forget it!

4) 	ma: xi-nech-mikti (S)       			don't kill me!
		maka xi-nech-mikti (S)     		don't kill me!

5) 	maka xi-k-mikti (S)          			don't kill it!
			
6) te: xi-kwa-kan nu-xu:leh-yu. (N-42) 	Don't eat (you pl.) my husband!
	
4.6.  Possession  
	
	Pipil has several constructions which express different kinds of possession.
	
4.6.1. Pronominal possession.  Pronoun possession is signaled by prefixes, as seen in sections 3.1.2 and 3.2.4, e.g. nu-pe:lu "my dog", mu-pe:lu "your dog", etc.
	
4.6.2.   Nominal possession.   When the possessor is an independent noun (and not just a pronoun), the possession construction has the form: possessive pronominal prefix-Noun1 (Demonstrative) Noun2, e.g. "his-dog the man" for "the man's dog".  Some examples are:
			
1)	i-ih-i:x ne siwa:pil
	her-PL-eye the girl
	"the girl's eyes"

2) 	ne i-uh-u:mi-yu ne chumpipi
	the its-PL-bone-INT POSS the turkey
	"the bones of the turkey"

3) 	i-chan ne ta:ka-t   			"The man's house" 

4) 	i-kwit turuh        			"cow's excrement" 

5) 	i-ihikxi tihlan     			"chicken's feet" 

6) 	i-na:n ne bru:hah (N-46)
	"the witch's mother"

7) 	ne i-i:xyu ne tekumat (N-61)
	"the bottle gourd's seed(s)"
			
8) 	se: i-tapahsul ne wi:lutsin mareno
	"a nest of the mareno bird"

	Of course, the second noun can also be possessed and appear with possessive pronominal prefixes, as in, for example, "my father's house", as illustrated in:
			
9)	i-kal nu-te:ku
	his-house my-father ("my father's house")

10) 	ne i-da:muh nu-lama (N-90) 
		the her-old man my-grandmother "my grandmother's lover"

11) 	ne i-naka-yu tu-kuhkul, ne i-da:muh ne in-lama. (N-105) 
		the his-meat-INT  POSS our-boogey man, the her lover the their-grandmother.  
		"Our boogyman's flesh, their grandmother's lover".
	
4.6.3. Pal periphrastic possessive.  A periphrastic possessive construction with pal also exists, probably created on analogy with the Spanish de, e.g.:
	
1) 	plastas pal turuh (A-22)
	plasters of cow
	"cowpies"
	
2) 	ne ihyak naka-t pal ne masa:-t (N-40)
	the stinking meat-ABSOL of the deer
	
3) 	i-ih-ikxi ke:n pal henteh (S-39)
	her-PL-foot like of people
	"her feet (were) like people's"
	
4.6.4.	Piya "to have". Unlike many other Mesoamerican Indian languages, Pipil has a verb of possession corresponding to English "to have".  It is illustrated in these sentences:
	
1) 	ni-k-piya se: nu-finkita (N-30)
	I-it-have a my-small farm.
	"I have a small farm."

2) 	ya ki-piya se: i-enamorado (N-81)
	She it-have a her-lover.
	"She has a lover."

3) 	ki-piya se: i-te:lpu:ch-tsin. (R-1) 
	it-have a his-son-DIMIN.
	"He has a small son."

4) 	ki-piya ne i-kal-tsin. 
	it-have the her-house-DIMIN. 
	"(She) has her little house."

5) 	ni-k-pix-(s)kiya tumin, ni-k-kuwa-skiya turuh. 
	I-it-have-COND money, K-it-buy-COND cow.
	"If I had money. I would buy cow(s)."
	
6) 	su datka ni-k-piya.
	no nothing I-it-have.
	"I don't have anything." 
	
4.6.5. Possessive 'relational noun'. When a possessive pronoun functions as an independent noun phrase, like "mine", "yours", etc., it has the structure of a 'relational noun' with the root -pal plus a possessive pronominal prefix. A paradigm of these forms is:
	
	nu-pal           	mine
	mu-pal          	yours (sg.)
	i-pal            	his/hers/its tu-pal           
	ours 		anmu-pal (C)    
	yours (pl.) 		amu-pal (SD)
	im-pal           	theirs
	te:-pal          	someone else's, foreign
	
Some sample sentences with the possessive relational noun are:
		
1)	ini tu-pal    	"That's ours."

2) 	ini ha ni-k-neki-skiya ma: nu-pal (R-25)
	that what I-i-want-COND that mine
	"That's what I would like to be mine" ("That's what I wish were mine."

4.7.  	Locatives (see 3.5).
4.8.  	Demonstratives (see 3.3).
4.9.  	Adjectives in larger constructions   

	As seen in section 3.6, the morphological markers of adjectives are -(a:w)ak, -(ti)k, and   -nah, though some have no direct morphological indications. Syntactically, adjectives normally precede the noun they modify (Adj-N). There are a few instances of postposed adjectives (N-Adj), but rarely and mainly when the adjective in question is a Spanish loan.  Adverbs precede the adjectives they modify (Adv-Adj), including negatives (Neg-Adj).   There are also predicate adjectives (Pred. Adj) which appear as the complement of copular constructions (with ∅-copula). Some examples of adjectives in these constructions are:

1) 	siyuhti nemi-k se: ta:ka-t intelihenteh. (N-5) (n.-adj.)
	once is-PRET a man-ABSOL intelligent.
	"Once there was an intelligent man."   

2) 	se: bwen punyuh (H-25) (adj.-n.)
		a good (=big) bunch

3) 	se: siwa:pil hermosa (H-29) (n.-adj.) 
	a girl pretty
	"a pretty girl"

4) 	ne chih-chi:l-tik tsapu-t (N-30) (adj.-n.)
	the PL-red-ADJ zapote-ABSOL     
	the red zapotes
		
5) 	ne ihyak naka-t (N-40) (adj.-n.)
	the stinking meat

6) 	kabal uksi-tuk ne wahkal (N-54) (pred. adj)
	just ripen-PERF the gourd
	"Just then the gourd (was) ripe"

7) 	ne mu-te:lpu:ch-tsin kukuya (R-14) (pred. adj) 
	the your-son-DIMIN sick
	"Your little son (is) sick."
		
8) 	n-yu ni-nemi deskalsoh. (R-42) (pred. adj)
	I-go I-be barefoot 
	"I am going to be barefoot."
	
4.10.   Comparatives.  The comparative construction in Pipil has been borrowed in toto from Spanish, employing the loanword mas, e.g.:

1) 	mas ka-tayuwa
	more in-late
	"later"

2) 	mu-manuh mas bibo. (A-33) 
	your-brother more smart. 
	"Your brother (is) smarter."
		
4.11.  	Coordination.  Among the kinds of complex sentences of Pipil, it is not always easy to distinguish coordinate from subordinate structures. The description of complex sentences begins with those which take the conjunctions which might be considered coordinate:
		
	wan		and
	pero, pe:roh	but
	ni, ni ke		neither nor, nor
	sino		but 
	y			and
	mas bien		rather
	o			or
	ma(n)		but
	ma(:)		that
	∅			and

Some examples of each follow.
		
	4.11.1. Wan "and":                       
	
1) 	ne ta:ka-t k-itskih ne michin wan ki-kwah.
	the man-ABSOL it-caught the fish and it-ate.      
	"The man caught the fish and ate it."

2)  	entonses ne i-siwa:-w ki-miktih ne chumpipi, ki-chiw-ki 
	desplumar, wan ki-chiw-ki ne komidah, wan ki-kwah-ke-t. (H-12) 
	then the his-wife-POSS it-killed the turkey, it-do-PRET pluck, and it-do-PRET the food, 	and it-eat-PRET-PL.
	"Then his wife killed the turkey, (she) plucked it, and (she) made the food, and they ate 	it."

3) 	a los tres dias ka panu-tuk ne urakan wan ki-kwah-tiwi-t ne chumpipi wa:lah-ke-t u:me 	ta:ka-met wan se: siwa:-t ki-te:mua-t. (H-15)
	upon the three days that pass-PERF the hurricane and it-eat-PERFPL the turkey came-	PRET-PL two man-PL and one woman-ABSOL it-look for-PL.    
	"Three days after the hurricane had passed and they had eaten the turkey two men and a 	woman came looking for it."

4) kunih ki-kwih i-kalabo:s wan i-ma:ta-w, yawi ka ne: ka arkuh. (A-6)
	then it-grabbed  his-machete and his-net-POSS, go to there to arch.       
	"Then (he) grabbed his machete and his net-bag, (and) (he) goes there to (the) arch."
	
5) 	ki-chiwa hwersah wan k-ilwia xi-nech-sutsuma. (S-35)
	it-do force and him-say IMP-me-untie.      
	"(She) exerts force and says, "untie me".

6) 	mu-chih-ki ne kwawi-t wan ki-pix-ki se: i-ta:kil, se: wahkal. (N-52)
	REFLEX-do-PRET the tree-ABSOL and it-have-PRET a its-fruit, a gourd.
	"The tree grew and (it) had a fruit, a gourd."

7) 	ki-tek wan ki-wi:ka-k ka i-chan. (N-56)
	it-cut and it-take-PRET to her-house.      
	"(She) cut it and took it to her house."

8) 	ki-xi:pe:h-ke-t wan ki-maka-ke-t ne in-lama ma: ki-mana. 
	it-skin-PRET-PL and it-give-PRET-PL the their-grandmother that it-cook.
	"They skinned it and they gave it (to) their grandmother (so) that (she would) cook it."

9) 	k-ilpih-ke-t  ne ah-a:rgoyah wan ki-maka-ke-t ti:-t ne kal. (N-139)
	it-tie-PRET-PL the PL-ring and it-give-PRET-PL fire-ABSOL the house.   
	"They tied the rings and gave set the house on fire.

10) 	k-al-i:ka-t ne ye:y pipil-tsi-tsin se: in-mih-michin-tsi-tsin wan ne se:yuk k-al-i:ka se:  		i-tapahsul ne wi:lu-tsin mareno. (R-23)
		it-DIR-take-PL the three boy-PL-DIMIN a their-PL-fish-PL-DIMIN wan the other it-		DIR-take a its-nest the bird mareno.       
		"The three little boys brought some little fish and the other brings a small mareno 			bird's nest."
  
	4.11.2. Pero, pe:roh "but":

1) 	ni-mits-maka-skiya se: mu-tamal, pero tesu ni-k-piya. (SD) 
	I-you pl.-give-would a your-tortilla, but no I-it-have.
	"I would give you a tortilla, but I don't have any."

2) 	ni-k-kwa-skiya pero tesu ni-mayana. (SD)
	I-it-eat-COND but no I hunger.
	I would eat it but I am not hungry."

3)  	a:n te: weli ni-ta-kwa pero mu:sta ni-yawi ni-ta-kwa  we:y. (SD)
	today no can I-something-eat but tomorrow I-go I-something-eat lots.
	"Today I can not eat, but tomorrow I am going to eat a lot.

4)  Pero tay yehemet mu-chiw-ke-t afihar ka ne i-uh-u:mi-yu ne chumpipi, ne plumas te: ki-	kwa pe:lu. (H-13)
	but what they REFLEX-do-PRET-PL notice that the its-PL-bone-INT POSS the turkey, 	the feathers no it-eat dog.
	"But what they noticed (was) that (the) dog did not eat the turkey's bones, (nor) the 	feathers."

5)  ki-chih-ki luchar pero tesu weli-k, pe:h-ki chu:ka, pe:h-ki chu:ka. (N-11)
	it-do-PRET fight but no can-PRET, begin-PRET to cry, begin-PRET to cry.
	"(She) fought but (she) couldn't; (she) began to cry, (she) began to cry."

6)  naha tesu  ni-k-mati, pero nech-ilwih-ke-t ka nu-siwa:-w bru:hah, ma: ni-k-ta:lih 	kwidadoh. (N-25)
	I no I-it-know, but me-say-PRET-PL that my-wife-POSS witch, that I-it-place care.
	"I don't know, but they told me that my wife (is a) witch, that I (should) be careful."

7)  	ah, ne nu-siwa:pil-tsin, ti-mik-tuk pero ni:kan nemi ne nu-chi:chiwal. (N-50)
	oh, the my-girl-DIMIN, you-die-PERF but here is the my-gourd.
	"Oh, my little girl, you have died, but here is my gourd." 
	4.11.3. Ni, ni ke "(neither) nor"; mas bien "rather":

1) 	entonses naka-k pensatibo muchi ne hwamilya tayika te: ki-kwah pe:lu ne uh-u:mi-t ni ke 	ne plumah. (H-14)
	the stay-PRET thoughtful all the family because no it-ate dog the PL-bone-ABSOL nor 	the feather.
	"Then the whole family remained thinking because (the) dog  did not eat the bones nor 	the feathers."

2) 	entonses ne tesu tamal ne tay ni-k-kwah-tuk, ni ke pan, mas bien i-kwit turuh ni-k-kwah. 	(A-21)
	then the no tortilla the what I-it-eat-PERF, neither bread, rather its-excrement cow I-it-	ate.
	"Then it (is) not tortilla(s) that which I have eaten, nor (was it) bread, rather (it was) 	cow's excrement (that) I ate."
 
	4.11.4. Sino "but (not)":

1)  	Pero yehemet te: ina-ke-t la verdad sino ahsi-ke-t a:n k-ilwih-ke-t si por casualidad k-its-	tuk se: siwa:pil panuh ka ne: serka i-kal. (H-17)
	but they no tell-PRET-PL the truth but arrived-PRET-PL today itsay-PRET-PL if by 	chance it-see-PERF a girl pass in there near his-house.
	"But they didn't tell the truth, but (rather) they arrived now (and) they asked if by chance 	(he) had seen a girl pass by there near his house."

2) 	tesu ha masa:-t sino ne i-da:muh ne in-lama. (N-107)
	no that deer rather the her-lover the their-grandmother.
	"That (is) not (a) deer. but (rather) (it is) their grandmother's lover."
 
	4.11.5. Ma: "but":

1)  	ne sipiti:yuh chikitik-chin ma: tumak ne i-xumpe. (Sip-2)
	the sipitillo smallDIMIN but large the his-hat.
	"The Sipitillo (is) very little, but his hat (is) huge.
  
4.11.6. Gapping. In Pipil coordinate constructions, a verb may be eliminated through gapping when it is identical to the verb of the first constituent coordinated:

1)  	ka ne:pa ki-te:mua-t se: in-michin-tsin wan ne se:yuk ne i-tapahsul ne wih-wi:lu-tsin. (R-	34)
	to there it-look for-PL a their-fish-DIMIN and the other the itsnest the PL-bird-DIMIN.
	"There they look for some little fish and the other (for) the little bird's nest."

2) 	taha ti-yu ti-naka de ministro, taha se:yuk ministro, wan taha se:yuk ministro. (R-55)
	you you-go you-remain of minister, you other minister. and you other minister.
	"You are going to (a) minister, you another minister, and you another minister."
	4.12. Complement clauses. The sentential complements of Pipil function largely as their counterparts in Spanish. They are introduced by ka(h) (SD), ka (C) or tay (SD), ta: (C), and occasionally, Ø. It is quite possible that the introduction of tay/ta: (which means "what" elsewhere) as a complement marker is of recent origin due to the influence of Spanish que. Examples follow.

	4.12.1. Ka(h).
	
1) 	a:n ni-yaw ni-k-chih kontar ka nin nemi se: chu:le-t ke yaha propio yaha nech-ilwih-tuk ka i-na:n wan i-te:ku ne: tik arkuh nemi-t. (A-3)
today I-go I-it-did tell that here is an old man-ABSOL that he himself he me-tell-PERF that his-mother and his-father there in arch is-PL.
"Today I (am) going to tell that here there is an old man who he himself, he has told me that his mother and his father are there in (the) arch."

2) 	yahika nu-tatanoy nech-chiw-ki akonsehar kah te: ma: ni-nehnemi tayuwa purkeh ta-mu:tia-t. (S-5)
Therefore my-grandfather me-do-PRET advise that no that I-walk night because something-frighten-PL.
	"Therefore my grandfather advised me not to walk at night because they frighten."

3) 	ya klaroh k-ita-k kah wi:ts ne siwa:-t. (S-7)
	he clear it-see-PRET that come the woman-ABSOL.
	"He saw clearly that the woman (was) come(ing)."

4)	pwes, ti-yawi-t ti-k-ita-t ka nah ni-kalaki nu-chan. (S-18)
	well, we-go-PL we-it-see-PL that I I-enter my-house.
"Well, let's go see that I (will) enter my house."

5)	tesu ki-mati katka ka ne i-siwa:-w  se: bru:hah. (N-2) 
	no it-know BEFORE that the his-wife-POSS a witch.
	"(He) didn't know before that his wife (was) a witch."

6)	k-ilwia ne pa:leh ka ne i-siwa:-w bru:hah. (N-24) 
	him-tell the priest that the his-wife-POSS witch.
	"The priest says that his wife (is a) witch.

	7) ha, ni-k-mati ka mitsin-maka-tuk ne konse:hoh ne chimpe. (N-121) 
	ha, I-it-know that you pl.-give-PERF the advice the youngest son. 
	"Ha, I know that the "youngest son" has given you (pl.) that advice."

8)	ne reynah bi:dah ki-mati ka ki-chih-ke-t atender. (R-12)
	the queen delicious it-know that him-do-PRET-PL attend.
	"The queen feels good that they attend him."

9)	ni-k-elna:miki ka an-ehemet an-nu-a:migitus. (R-52)
	I-it-remember that you pl. you pl.-my-little friends.
	"I remembered that you (pl.) (are) my little friends.

10)	Barios tesu k-i:xmat-ke-t ma:  ka ki-chih kombenir ki:sa. (Sip-7)
	many no it-recognize-PRET-PL that that it-do pay to leave.
	"Many did not realize that (it) does not pay to go out."
	
4.12.2. Tay / ta:.

1)	na ni-k-elna:miki tay nech-ilwih nu-no:yah wan nu-tatanoy. (H-1) 
	I I-it-remember what me-told my-grandmother and my-grandfather.
"I remember what my grandmother and my grandfather told me.

2)	wan mu-chiw-ki proponer ke era demas tay wi:ts-et ki-chiwa-t tik tu-chan. (H-6)
and REFLEX-do-PRET propose that was too much what come-PL it-do-PL in our-town.
"And it was proposed that it was too much that which they came to do in our town."

3)	k-ita ta: ki-chiwa nemi ne i-siwa:-w. (N-13)
	it-see what it-do is the his-wife-POSS.
	"(He) sees what his wife is doing."

4)	kenemeh nemi ne: nana:watsin, ya k-ita ta: ki-chiwa ne in-lama. (N-84)
	since is there Nanahuatzin, he it-see what it-do the their grandmother.
	"Since the Nanahuatzin is there, he sees what their grandmother does."

5) 	ta: ki-kwa ne ta:ka-t k-i:xtilia. (N-15)
	what it-eat the man-ABSOL it-take away.
	"What(ever) the man eats, (she) takes it away from him."

6) 	ta: ki-neki ki-kwa muchi k-i:xtilia. (N-15)
	what it-want it-eat all it-take away.
	"What(ever) (he) wants to eat (she) takes it all away from him."

4.12.3. Ø.

1) 	nu-amiguh i-gustuh Ø na ni-k-chiwa kontar kwentos. (S-1)
	my-friend his-pleasure Ø I I-it-do tell stories.
	"My friend's pleasure (is that) I tell him stories."4

	4.13. Cleft sentences. Pipil cleft sentences are similar to the complement structures of 4.13. in that they take tay / ta: ("what", "that which"), with Ø where English would place some form of the verb "to be" (recall that Pipil has Ø -copula) in sentences with verbs, and with ha in clauses without verbs: ka(h) occurs as well when the object of the verb is a sentential complement. A few exampls are:

1) 	pero tay yehemet mu-chiw-ke-t afihar Ø ka ne i-uh-u:mi-yu te: ki-kwah pe:lu. (H-13)
But what they REFLEX-do-PRET-PL notice (was) that the its-PL-bone-INT POSS no it-ate dog.
	"But what they noticed was that (the) dog did not eat its bones."

2) 	yaha tay ki-chiw-ki kontestar Ø kah siwa:pil tesu k-its-tuk. (H-18)
	he what it-do-PRET answer Ø that girl no her-see-PERF.
	"He, what (he) answered was that (he) had not seen (any) girl."

3) 	lo que si ya ki-ahsi-k en kampuh libreh Ø se: chumpipi. (H-19)
	it which yes he it-find-PRET in field free Ø a turkey.
	"What he did find on open ground was a turkey."
	
4) 	ini ha ni-k-neki-skiya ma: nu-pal. (R-25)
	that what I-it-want-COND that my-POSS.
	"That (is) what I would like to be mine."

5) 	ini ha-ne ki-chiwa falta ne mu-te:lpu:ch-tsin. (R-45)
	that what-the it-do lack the your-son-DIMIN.
	"That (is) what your little son lacks."
	
6) 	ha yaha Ø i-na:n, ne bru:hah tantepuslamat. (N-46)
	that she her-mother, the witch iron-toothed-old-woman.
	"It is she (who is) her mother, the witch "Iron-toothed-old-woman"."
	
7) 	ne i-da:muh nu-lama yaha ha ki-kwa ne takwal. (N-90)
	the her-lover my-grandmother he who it-eat the food.
	"My grandmother's lover, it is he who ate the food."
	
8) 	ha yaha ki-miktih-ke-t. (N-108)
	who he it-kill-PRET-PL.
	"It is he that they killed."

	4.14. Relative clauses. Relative clauses in Pipil are similar in function to those of Spanish and are normally introduced by ne 'relative pronoun', ke (a borrowing of the Spanish relative marker que), and at times ka(h) "who, what". In what follows examples are presented in which the relativized noun phrase (signaled by the relative marker) functions first as the logical subject of the relative clause, followed by examples as the logical object. 

4.14.1. Relativized subjects.

1) 	ni-k-miktih ne mistun ka ki-kwah ne tu:tu-t.
	I-it-killed the cat that it-ate the bird. 
	"I killed the cat which ate the bird."

2) 	naha ni-k-ita-k ne siwa:-t ne ki-pa:k ne kwah-kwa:ch-ti. 
	I I-her-see-PRET  the woman-ABSOL that it-washed the PL-clothes.
	"I saw the woman who washed the clothes."

3)	kunih ahsi-ke-t i-chan ne ta:ka-t kah ki-kutamin-ki.
	then arrive-PRET-PL his-house the man-ABSOL who it-throw-PRET. 
	"Then they arrived (at) the house of the man who threw it down."

4) 	kunih ne ta:ka-t ke ki-kutamin k-its-ki ne chumpipi k-wi:ka ka i-chan. (H-10)
	then the man-ABSOL that it-throw it-grab-PRET the turkey it-take to his-house.
	"Then the man who threw it down grabbed the turkey (and) took it to his house."

	4.14.2. Relativized objects.

1) 	Naha ni-k-kuh-ki ne ka:wayu ne ti-k-ida-k ya:luwa.
	I I-it-buy-PRET the horse that you-it-see-PRET yesterday.
	"I bought the horse which you saw yesterday."

2) 	ni-k-namaka-k ne uchpa:nwas ke k-al-wi:ka-ke-t.
	I-it-sell-PRET the broom that it-DIR-take-PRET-PL.
	"I sold the broom that they brought."

3) 	ki:sa se: animal ke yehemet k-ilwia-t "tsun-tekuma-t". (S-4)
	leave an animal that they it-say-PL "skull".
	"An animal appears which they call (the) 'Skull'."
	
4) 	ni-k-i:xtu:ka ne gato tik ne ka:ho:n ke ki-chiw-ki nu-manu.
I-it-insert the cat in the box that it-make-PRET my-brother. 
"I stuck the cat in the box which my brother made."

	It should be noted that certain kinds of relative clauses do not exist in Pipil that are possible in English, such as those of the form, for example, "this is the girl whose father I know" and "this is the man for whom I work". Relativization of possessors such as English "the man's house who ... " are also not found in Pipil, since the construction is of the form "his-house the man who", more similar to English "the house of the man who" (see example 3 of 4.14.1).

4.15. Adverbial clauses 
	
Other subordinate clauses have an adverbial function, signaling location, time, manner, reason, or purpose. They are introduced by adverbial forms of the same meaning. Each is considered in turn.

	4.15.1. Locative clauses. 

1) 	ka:n. xi-nech-ilwiti sikyera ka:n nemi ne plumas, ka:n naka-k ne i-uh-u:mi-yu, pal ni-yaw ni-k-ita ka:n nemi. (H-22)
	IMP-me-show  at least where is the feathers, where remain-PRET the 
	its-PL-bone-INT POSS, so I-go I-it-see where is. 
"Show me at least where the feathers are, where its bones stayed, so that I (can) go see where (they) are."
	
2) 	ka:n por el ultimo ni-k-mati ka:n nemi nu-te:ku, ka:n nemi nu-na:n. (A-4)
	by the last I-it-know where is my-father, where is my-mother. 
"Finally I know where my father is, where my mother is."

3) 	ka:n. ka:n ne mik-tuk wal-ta:kat-ki se: tekuma-t. (N-44)
	where this die-PERF DIR-grow-PRET a bottlegourd-ABSOL.
	"Where she had died a bottlegourd grew."

4) 	ka:n. n-yu ni-mitsin-ilwitia ka:n panu ne. (N-91)
	I-go I-you pl.-show where passed this.
	"I am going to show you (pl.) where it happened." 

5) 	ka:n. ki-mat-ki ka:n nemi ne i-siwa:pil-tsin. (N-48)
	it-know-PRET where is the her-girl-DIMIN.
	"(She) knew where her little girl was."
	
6) 	ka:n.ne: ka:n ni-k-ita-k ne siwanaba ni-k-i:xtih ne nu-si:nchuh wan ni-k-ilpih. (SD)
	there where I-her-see-PRET the llorona I-it-removed the my-belt and I-her-tied.
	"There where I saw the sihuanaba I took off my belt and I tied her up."

	4.15.2. Time clauses.

1) 	ke:man. yahika ke:man yaha mayana ina i-se:l por el ultimo ni-k-mati ka:n nemi nu-te:ku, ka:n nemi nu-na:n. (A-4)
	therefore when he hungers say his-self by the last I-it-know where is my-father, where is my-mother.
"Therefore when he is hungry, (he) says (to) himself, 'finally I know where my father is, where my mother is."

2) 	a:n ka. yehemet ki-piya-t deber nech-maka-t a:n ka ni-mayana. (A-5)
	they it-have-PL must me-give-PL now that I-hunger.
	"They have to give me (something) now that I am hungry."

3) 	ke:man tay orah. Al fin ke:man yaha ki-neki miki ka mayana wan te: ki-piya, k-i:xtia se: espehuh tay orah takipi:ni. (A-36)
at last when he it-want to die that hungers and no it-have, it-remove a mirror what hour lightening.
"In the end when he wanted to die because (he) was hungry and didn't have (anything), (he) got out a mirror while it is lightning.

4) 	ke:man. ke:man yaha yawi katka derechoh ne kayeh, yah ki:s-ki i-i:xpan siwa:na:wal. (S-6)
	when he go BEFORE straight the street  leave-PRET his-before Sihuanaba.
"When he was going straight (down) the street, he came out in front of (the) Sihaunaba."

5) 	ke:man. ke:man ne siwa:na:wal ki-chiw-ki sentir ki-maka-tuk dos bweltas wan k-ilpih. (S-16)
	when the Sihuanaba it-do-PRET feel her-give-PERF two turns and her-tied.
"When the Sihuanaba felt it, (he) had given her two turns [=he had wrapped his belt around her twice] and (he) tied her up."

6) 	asta. yaha mu-talu asta ahsi-k te:n a:-t. (S-50)
she REFLEX-ran until arrive-PRET edge river-ABSOL.
	"She ran until (she) arrived at the edge of (the) river."

7) 	ke:man. na ne siyuhti ke:man ni-ya:h-ki ni-m-al:tia 
	nech-mu:tih se: tsun-tekuma-t. (SD)
I the once when I-go-PRET I-REFLEX-bathe me-scared a skull.
	"I, once when I went to bathe, a "skull" scared me."

8) 	tay o:rah. a veces ni-k-ka:ki tay o:rah m-a:ltia tah-tayuwa. (SD).
	at times I-it-hear what hour REFLEX-bathe PL-night.
	"Sometimes I hear her when (she) bathes at night."

4.15.3.  Manner clauses.

1) 	ke:n-aken. ah, ni-pa:xa:lua ke:n-aken taha ti-ki:s-tuk ti-pa:xa:lua. (S-10)
	oh, I-walk just-as you you-leave-PERF you-walk.
	"Oh, I'm taking a walk just as you have come out to take a walk."

2) 	ke:n. yu k-ita nu-lama ke:n yu panu. (N-132)
	go it-see my-grandmother how go pass.
"My grandmother is going see how [=what] is going to happen."
	
3) 	ke:n. ke:n nemi i-se:l-tsin, ne i-te:lpu:ch-tsin, re:y ki-tasuhta. (R-2)
	as is his-alone-DIMIN, the his-son-DIMIN, king him-love.
	"Since (he) is all alone [=the only one], his little son, (the) king loves him.".

4) 	kenemeh. pero, kenemeh tesu m-a:wiltia ka afwera mu-chih-ki entristeser. (R-4)
	but, since no REFLEX-play to outside REFLEX-do-PRET sadden.
	"But, since (he) doesn't play outsid, (he) got sad."

4.15.4. Reason clauses.

1) 	tayika. entonses naka-k pensatibo muchi ne hwamilya tayika te: ki-kwah pe:lu ne uh-u:mi-t. (H-14)
	then stay-PRET thoughtful all the family because no it-ate dog the PL-bone-ABSOL.
"Then the whole family remained pensive because (the) dog didn't eat the bones."
	
2) 	porké. kunih ahsi-ke-t i-chan ne ta:ka-t kah ki-kutamin-ki porké yehemet poco mas o menos ki-matia-t-a katka kah ki-kutamin. (H-16)
then arrive-PRET-PL his-house the man-ABSOL who it throw-PRET because they somewhat more or less it-know-PL-already BEFORE who it threw. 
"Then they arrived (at) the man house who threw it down because they more or less knew already before who threw it down."

3) 	porké. kieneh k-wi:ka-ke-t ne siwa:pil porké ne ta:ka-t en el momento que k-ita-k ke ki-chiw-ke-t la prweba k-ita-k perfectamente ka se: siwa:pil hermosa ki:s-ki tik ne we:sus wan ne plumah2. (H-29)
thus her-take-PRET-PL the girl because the man-ABSOL in the moment that it-see-PRET that it-doPRET-PL the proof it-see-PRET perfectly that a girl beautiful leave-PRET the bones and the feather.
"Thus they took the girl, because the man in the moment that (he) saw that they made the test saw perfectly that a beautiful girl came from the bones and the feathers.

4) 	porké. pero kunih mu-chiw-ke-t hregar porke ki-miktih-ke-t se: siwa:pil wan ki-kwah-ke-t. (H-31)
but thus REFLEX-doPRET-PL screw because her-kill-PRET-PL a girl and her-eat-PRET-PL. 
	"But then they were screwed up, because they killed a girl and they ate her."

5)  	porké.  ni-yaw ni-k-tahtani  tay ni-kwa porke yehemet ki-piya-t debér nech-maka-t 	a:n ka ni-mayana. (A-5)
	I-go I-it-ask what I-eat because they it-have must me-give-PL now that I-hunger.
	"I am going to asked for something to eat because they have (the) obligation to give 	me (something) now that I am hungry."

6) 	porké. kunih xi-k-kwa sikyera pan porké tamal te: kanah. (A-11)
	then IMP-it-eat at least bread because tortilla no is.
	"Then eat at least bread because there are no tortillas."

7) 	tayika.  pero ke:man ni-yaw ni-mu-kwepa ni-yaw, ni-yaw ni-k-ahwa nu-na:n tayika 	yaha nech-maka-tuk. (A-23)
	but when I-go I-REFLEX-return I-go, I-go I-her-scold my-mother because she me-	give-PERF.
	"But when I return, I'm going to go scold my mother because (of what) she has given 	me." 

8) 	porké. pero ni-k-chiw-ki hregar, porke ni-k-ilpih. (S-43)
	but I-her-do-PRET screw, because I-her-tied. 
	"But I screwed her up because I tied her up."
	
4.15.5. Purpose clauses (pal).

1) 	inmediatamente ki-chiw-ki ordinar i-siwa:-w ma: ki-mikti ne chumpipi pal ki-kwa-t. 	(H-11)
	immediately her-do-PRET order his-wife-POSS it-kill the turkey so it-eat-PL.
	"Immediately (he) ordered his wife that (she) kill the turkey in order that they (could) 	eat it (=for them to eat it).

2)  	yahika a:n ni-k-chiwa kontar nu-amiguh pal k-wi:ka como recuerdo ini kwentuh. (H-	33)
	therefore today I-him-do tell my-friend so it-take as remembrance this story.
	"Therefore today I tell my friend so that (he can) take this story as (a) remembrance.
		
3) 	xi-k-kwa sikyera pan pal panu mu-maya. (A-11)
	IMP-it-eat at least bread to pass your-hunger.
	"Eat at least (some) bread (in order) to get over your hunger."

4) 	kunih x-al-kwi uk se:yuk tortah, nah ni-k-ta:lia tik nu-ma:ta-w pal ni-k-kwa mu:sta. 	(A-14)
	then IMP-DIR-grab other another bun, I I-it-place in my-net so I-it-eat tomorrow.       	"Then bring another bun (and) I (will) put it in my netbag for me to eat tomorrow."
		
5) 	ni-yaw ni-k-nu:tsa nu-te:ku pal ni-k-kwa. (A-28)
	I-go I-him-speak my-father so I-it-eat.
	"I'm going to speak (to) my father in order to eat."
	
6)  	yahika mu-kets-tuk peyna bien tayuwa ki-tatia ti-t pal panu i-sesek. (S-20)
	therefore REFLEX-arise-PERF early very night it-burn fire-ABSOL so pass her-cold.
	"Therefore (she) had gotten up early, late at night, to light (a) fire in order to get over 	the cold."

7) 	ni-mu-kets-ki ni-k-tatia ti-t pal ni-mu-tutu:nia. (S-32) 
	I-REFLEX-arise-PRET I-it-burn fire-ABSOL so I-REFLEX-heat.
	"I got up to light (the) fire in order to warm myself."

8)  	yahika a:n nu-amiguh ni(-k)-chih kontar pal ki-mati ka nemi tsun-tekuma-t wan nemi 	siwa:na:wal. (S-53)
	therefore today my-friend I-it-did tell so it-know that is "skull" and is Sihuanaba.
	"For that reason today I told my friend so that (he would) know that there is (a) 'Skull' 	and there is (a) Sihuanaba."
		
9) 	yu yawi anmu-wan pal mu-chiwa dibertir. (R-29)
	gogo your pl.-with so REFLEX-do have fun.
	"(He) is going to go with you (pl.) (in order) to have a good time."
4.16.	Conditional sentences.   In section 3.7.2.4 it was seen that the conditional morpheme of verbs is -skiya.  In this section conditional sentences are described. These usually contain a verb with the -skiya suffix in the apodosis, while the conditional clause is most frequently introduced by (a)su "if". Some examples are:
		
	1) 	asu ahsi yaha n-u: ni-k-taxta:wia.
		if arrive he I-go I-him-pay.
		"If he arrive I, am going to pay him."
		
	2) 	yaha ahsi-tu-skiya, ni-k-taxta:wih-tu-skiya.
		he arrive-PERF-COND, I-him-pay-PERF-COND.
		"Had he come, I'd have paid him."
		
	3) 	ni-k-pix-(s)kiya tumin, ni-k-kuwa-skiya turuh.
		I-it-have-COND money, I-it-buy-COND cow.
		"Had I money, I'd buy cows."

	4) 	Nah su te: ni-tekiti, te: ni-ta-kwa.
		I if no I-work, no I-something-eat.
		"I, if I don't work, I don't eat."

	5) 	ni-mits-maka-skiya se: mu-tamal pero tesu ni-k-piya.
		I-you-give-COND a your-tortilla but no I-it-have.
		"I would give you a tortilla but I don't have (any)."
	
	6) 	ni-k-kwa-skiya pero tesu ni-maya:na.
		I-it-eat-COND but no I-hunger.
		"I would eat it but I'm not hungry."

	7) 	ti-yu-t ti-yawi-t a ber su ti-mu-chiwa alegrar chupi. (R-7)
		we-go-PL we-go-PL to see if you-REFLEX-do cheer some.
		"Let's go to see if you (will) cheer up a little."
	
	8)	 muchi ne doktores panu-tiwi-t a ber a:su ki-pahtia-t. (R-16)
		all the doctors pass-PERF-PL to see if him-cure-PL.
		"All the doctors have come by to see if they (could) cure him."
	
4.17.	Auxiliaries.   Pipil has two principal auxiliary verbs, nemi "to be", used in 'progressive' constructions, and yawi "to go", used in the periphrastic 'future' constructions.   Two other verbs have a function intermediate between auxiliaries and main verbs, weli "to be able, can" and pe:wa "to begin", while yawi (particularly in non-'present' tenses) also participates in a non'future' auxiliary construction. These latter three are considered auxiliaries, not only because of their function, but because of their form. That is, these typically do not bear the pronominal prefixes which the main verbs bear, while in other constructions of verb + verb both verbs bear these prefixes. These are described in this section. 
4.17.1.	Nemi 'progressive'.  In the progressive, nemi more often follows the main verb, but it can also precede it with no change in function. Some examples are:
	
	1) 	k-ita ta: ki-chiwa nemi ne i-siwa:-w. (N-13)
		it-see what it-do is the his-wife-POSS.
		"(He) sees what his wife is doing."
	
	2) 	nu-lama mitsin-chiwa nemi hoder. (N-85)
		my-grandmother you pl.-do is screw.
		"My grandmother is screwing you (pl.)."

	3)	panu-k k-ita-k ka ki-tantia nemi ne i-tan. (N-128) 
		pass-PRET it-see-PRET that it-sharpen is the her-teeth. 
		"(He) passed by to see that (she) is sharpening her teeth."
	
	4)	 tawiya nemi.
		shell is. 
		(She) is shelling (corn).

	5)	ti-k-chiya-t ti-nemi-t ne a:-t pal ti-ta-tu:ka-t. 
		we-it-wait-PL we-are-PL the water-ABSOL we-something-plant-PL. 
		"We are waiting for the rain so that we (can) plant."
	
	6) 	pero kene ni-nemi, ni-nemi ni-k-chiwa luchar. (SD)
		but since I-am, I-am I-it-do fight.
		"But since I am (there), I am fighting."
	
4.17.2.  Yawi 'periphrastic future'. The paraphrastic future with yawi "to go" is quite equivalent to that of English as in "I'm going to sell tomatoes".  It is, then, also the same as its counterpart in Spanish based on the verb ir "to go", which quite probably has influenced this Pipil construction both in form and in its high frequency of occurrence. (It should be recalled that yawi has several shapes, (y)u(:) in faster speech, particularly when used as an auxiliary, yaw as an intermediate form between full yawi and very abbreviated (y)u(:), and ya(:)h in preterite and perfect forms; for details see 4.12). Some examples are:
	
	1) 	Na ni-yawi ni-mu-kwepa ni-k-ilpia. (S-48)
		I I-go I-REFLEX-return I-her-tie.
		"I'm going to tie her up again."
	
	2) 	n-yu ni-mitsin-ilwitia. (N-88)
		I-go K-you pl.-show.
		"I am going to show you (pl.)."
	
	3) 	n-yu ni-k-mana. (N-105)
		I-go I-it-cook.
		"I am going to cook it."
	4) 	n-yu n-al-in-nu:tsa. (R-49)
		I-go I-DIR-them-speak.
		"I am going to call them."
	
	5) 	n-yu ni-mitsin-maka se: pwestoh. (R-54)
		I-go I-you pl.-give a position.
		"I am going to give you (pl.) a position."
	
	6)	 ne tsun-tekuma-t yawi-ya miki ka i-se:l-tsin tik ne kebrada. (N-43)
		the "skull" go-IMPERF die in her-alone-DIMIN in the canyon.
		"The 'Skull' was going to die now all alone in the ravine."
	
	7)	 uk yu wi:ts ne: tu-kuhkul. (N-98).
		now go come there our-boogyman.
		"Now our boogyman is going to come there."
	
	8) 	ti-yawi-t ti-k-ita-t.
		we-go-PL we-it-see-PL.
		"We are going see (=Let's see)."
	
	9)	t-yu-t ti-yawi-t se: apwestah. (N-134)
		we-go-PL we-go-PL a bet.
		"We are going to go (=make) a bet." = "Let's make a bet."
	
	10) 	ti-yu-t ti-yawi-t ti-pa:xa:lua-t ne:pa ka ku:htan. (R-6)
		we-go-PL we-go-PL we-walk-PL there in woods.
		"We are going to go take a walk there in (the) woods."
	
	11)	 n-u: ni-k-chiw. (N-61)
		I-go I-i-do.
		"I am going to do it."

	12) 	yawi-t-a wi:ts-et ne nu-pila:-wan-tsi-tsin. (R-21)
		go-PL-already come-PL the my-boy-PL POSS-PL-DIMIN.
		"My little boys are going to come now."
	
4.17.3.	Yawi "to go" auxiliary. Yawi also has an auxiliary function much akin to the "go" of English as in, e.g., "go buy me an apple", "John goes swimming frequently". Unlike the yawi of the periphrastic future, this yawi does not bear the pronominal prefixes, which are marked only on the main verb. In the present tense it is not always easy to distinguish this auxiliary from the periphrastic future, but in other tenses it is clearer, as in:
	
	1) 	ya:h-ki ki-tantia ne i-tan. (N-124) 
		go-PRET it-sharpen the her-tooth.
		"(She) went to sharpen her teeth."

2)	ya:h-ki ki-tahtani se:yuk konse:hoh. (N-17) 
	go-PRET it-ask another advice.
		"(He) went to ask for more advice."
	
	3) 	ya:h-ki ni-m-a:ltia.
		go-PRET I-REFLEX-bathe.
		"I went to take a bathe."
	
4.17.4.	Weli "to be able, can". Weli lacks pronominal prefixes and precedes the main verb which bears the pronoun markers. That is, "I can walk" is literally "can I-walk".  Some examples are:
	
	1) 	weli ni-nehnemi wehka.
		can I-walk far.
		"I can walk far."

	2) 	a:n te: weli ni-k-kwa pero mu:sta ni-yawi ni-ta-kwa we:y. 
		today no can I-it-eat but tomorrow I-go I-something eat lots. 
		"Today I cannot eat but tomorrow I'm going  to eat a lot."

3)	te: weli-k ni-k-namaka ne uchpa:nwas ne k-al-wi:ka-ke-t. 
	no can-PRET I-it-sell the broom that it-DIR-take-PRET-PL.
		"I could not sell the broom which they brought."

	4) 	tik ne trampah weli-k ki-kutamima se: siwa:pil. (H-8)
		in the trap can-PRET it-throw a girl.
		"In the trap (he) was able to to trap a girl."

	5) 	ka:n ka:xani-k kunih weli-k sutumi-k, ki:sa mu-talua. (S-38)
		where loosen-PRET then can-PRET untie-PRET leave REFLEX run. 
		"Where (it) came loose then (she) could get untied (and  she) took off 			running."
	
	6) 	te:-ya su weli-k mu-sa:lua. (N-10)
		not-now no can--PRET REFLEX-stick. 
		"(She) could no longer stick herself on."
	
4.17.5.  Pe:wa "to begin, start". The verb pe:wa occurrs very often in an auxiliary-like construction preceding the main verb but without pronominal prefixes (which are born by the main verb). It is equivalent in effect to English sentences with "to start", e.g. "they started running". Some sample instances are:
	
	1) 	pe:h-ki kin-mu:tia. (N-31)
		begin-PRET them-scare.
		"It started scaring them." = "It began to frighten them."
	
	2) 	pe:h-ke-t temu-t ne kuh-kusma-ket. (N-39)
		beginPRET-PL descend-PL PL-vulture.
		"The vultures began to come down."

3)		pe:h-ki k-ilwia tik mahikah. (N-67) 
	begin-PRET it-say in magic.
		"(She) began to say (it) in magic."

	4)  	pe:h-ki  ne in-lama ki-wih-wila:nih ne ah-a:makitas. (N-69)
		begin-PRET the their-grandmother it-PL-hung the PL-little hammocks.
		"Their grandmother began to hang the little hammocks."

	5) 	pe:h-ki  k-al-nu:tsa ne i-enamorado pal se:n-ta-kwa-t. (N-82)
		begin-PRET it-DIR-speak the her-lover so together-something-eat-PL.
		"(She) began to call her lover so that they (could) eat together."
	
	6) 	pe:h-ki ne tantepuslama ki-kwa ne naka-t. (N-113)
		begin-PRET the iron-toothed-old-woman it-eat the meat-ABSOL.
		"The 'Iron-toothed-old-woman' started eating the meat."
	
4.18.	Complex  verb phrases.  Pipil has other constructions in which two (or more) verbs occur together within the same (surfacestructure) verb phrase in constructions which would correspond  to infinitival forms in English or Spanish (i.e. sentences which have undergone Equivalent Noun-Phrase Deletion, see below). Within this more general class of juxtaposed verb forms, three verbs (wi:ts "to come", ki:sa "to leave", and -neki "to want") have a function intermediate between full, main verbs and auxiliaries. They are best apprehended from examples.
	
4.18.1.  Wi:ts + verb.

	1) 	yahika ne urakaneros en realidad wi:ts-et de chiltiupan, wi:ts-et k-wi:ka-t e:lu-		t pal ki-kwa. (H-20)
		therefore the hurricaners in reality come-PL from Chiltiupan, come-PL it-			take-PL roasting ears for it-eat.
		"Therefore the Hurricaner in reality came from  Chiltiupan, they came to carry 		off ears of corn for eating."
	
	2) 	wal-temu wi:ts. (N-65)
		DIR-descend.
		"It comes descending." = "It's coming down."

	3) 	wan mu-chiw-ki proponer ke era demas tay wi:ts-et ki-chiwa-t ni:n tik tu-			chan. (H-6)
		and REFLEX-do-PRET propose that was too much what come-PL it-do-PL 		here in our-town. 
		"And it was proposed that it was too much which they come to do here in our 		town."
	
4.18.2. Ki:sa + verb.
	
	1) 	ne i-siwa:-w ki:sa pa:xa:lua. (N-5)
		the his-wife-POSS leave to walk.
		"His wife goes out to take a walk."

	2) 	ka:n ka:xani-k kunih weli-k sutumi-k, ki:sa mu-talua. (S-38)
		where loosen-PRET then can-PRET untie-PRET, leave REFLEX-run.
		"Where (it) loosened then (she) could get untied (and she) took off running."

	3) 	ah, ni-ki:s-tuk ni-pa:xa:lua nu:san ke:n-ake:n taha ti-ki:s-tuk ti-pa:xa:lua. 
		(S-27)
		oh, I-leave-PERF I-walk alone just-as you  you-leave-PERF you-walk.
		"Oh, I have gone out to take a walk alone just like  you have gone out to take 		a walk."
	
4.18.3.  -neki + verb.
	
	1) 	ni-k-neki ni-k-kuwa se: tihlan.
		I-it-want I-it-buy a chicken.
		"I want to buy a chicken."

	2)  	yaha ki-neki ki-kaki kwentos tay tik nu-te:chan ki-chiw-ki suseder. (A-2).
		he it-want it-hear stories what in my-town it-do-PRET happen.
		"He wants to hear stories that in my town took place."
	
	3) 	ni-k-neki ni-ta-kwa. (A-7)
		I-it-want I-something-eat.
		"I want to eat."
	
	4) 	se-pa ne tsun-tekuma-t tesu ki-neki naka te:n tyupan. (N-20)
		one-time a "skull"-ABSOL no it-want stay edge church.
		"Again the 'skull' does not want to stay in front of (the) church."
	
	5) 	tesu ki-neki ku:temu. (N-21)
		no it-want descend.
		"(She) doesn't want to come down."
	
	6) 	ki-neki-t ki-kwa-t ne naka-t. (N-40)
		it-want-PL it-eat-PL the meat-ABSOL.
		"They want to eat the meat."
	
	7) 	ki-neki ki-miktia katka. (N-121)
		it-want it-kill BEFORE.
		"(She) was wanting to kill him."
	
4.18.4. Other verb + verb forms (Equivalent Noun-Phrase Deletion).  Other surface verb phrases occur which have two or more verbs, corresponding to infinitives in many other languages.  In Pipil, they occur juxtaposed, but each bears the subject pronominal prefixes. Thus, literally "I went by to see it" is "I-passed I-it-saw." Some examples are:       
	
	1) 	mu-kwep-ki k-ita tik i-karah. (S-44)
		REFLEX-turnPRET it-see in her-face.
		"(He) turned around to see her in her face."
	
	2) 	panu-k k-ita-k ka ki-tantia nemi ne i-tan. (N-128)
		pass-PRET it-see-PRET it-sharpen is the her-tooth.
		"(He) went by to see that (she) was sharpening her teeth."
	
	3) 	na ni-yaw ni-mu-kwepa ni-k-ilpia. (S-48)
		I I-go I-REFLEX-turn I-it-tie.
		"I am going to tie her up again."
	
4.19. -Chiwa + Spanish infinitive. Often so-called minority languages, spoken in the social or political setting where some other language dominates them in power or prestige (usually in situations involving extensive bilingualism) contain constructions for employing directly unassimilated forms from the dominant language. Very often this involves the native verb "to do" plus an infinitive from the dominant language, as is the case of Pali forms used in Burmese, Arabic loans in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu, and of Chinese borrowings into Japanese, among others. In some of these languages it is a former contact situation of dominance which has left its reflexes, although the domination no longer exists. Spanish verbs are employed in this way in various Mayan languages and other Indian languages of Mesoamerica. Pipil utilizes -chiwa "to do" plus unassimilated Spanish infinitives , which provides Pipil, in effect, with the richness of Spanish concepts not easily expressed in Pipil, and allows speakers access to the prestige of Spanish even in cases where Pipil has perfectly equivalent verbs. It is also used frequently when the Pipil form is not readily remembered. Since the Spanish infinitive also functions as a nominalization, structurally it is not so strange to see it with -chiwa "to do", where it could be thought of as something like, e.g. ni-k-chiwa luchár "I do fighting", i.e. "I fight". In this construction, the tenses, aspects, pronominal subjects and objects, reflexives, etc. are born by -chiwa and the Spanish infinitive does not vary. While these infinitives are not properly speaking part of Pipil, they are presented in the examples and in the texts in the Pipil practical orthography and not in Spanish spelling. Some examples taken  from the texts are the following; for the full sentential contexts see these texts:

	1) 	mu-chiw-ki proponér (H-6)
		it was proposed (cf. Sp. se propuso)

	2) 	ki-chiw-ki desplumár (H-12)
		(she) plucked it (cf. Sp. lo desplumó)
	
	3) 	mu-chiw-ke-t afihár (H-13)
		they noticed (cf. Sp. se fijó)
	
	4)	 ki-chiw-ki kontestár (H-18)
		(he) answered (it) (cf. Sp. lo contestó)

	5) 	mu-chiw-ke-t elebár wan mu-chiw-ke-t desaparesér (U-26)
		REFLEX-do-PRET-PL rise and REFLEX-do-PRET-PL disappear. 
		"They rose up and disappeared." (cf. Sp. elevarse, desaparecerse.)
	
	6) 	mu-chiw-ke-t hregár (S-1)
		they were screwed (cf. Sp. se fregaron)
	
	7) 	nech-chiw-tuk kontár nu-tatanoy (U-32)
		me-do-PERF tell my-grandfather
		"my grandfather has told me"

	8) 	ni-chiw-ki sentir kalór (S-13) 
		I felt hot (cf. Sp. senti calor)

	9)	 ki-chiw-ki hwaltár (S-46)
		he lacks (cf. Sp. le hace falta, le falta)
	
	10) 	yah mu-chiw-ki arrepentír. (S-47)
		he REFLEX-do-PRET repent.
		"He regretted (it)." (Cf. Sp. el se arrepentió.)
	
	11) 	ni-nemi ni-k-chiwa luchár. (N-31)
		I-am I-it-do fight.
		"I am fighting."        

	Chapter 5

Pipil-Spanish-English Dictionary

5.0. Introduction 
		
		This dictionary covers the two Pipil dialects which today have the greatest number of speakers, Cuisnahuat (abbreviated (C)) and Santo Domingo de Guzman (signaled by (SD)). Entries are preceded by either (C) or (SD) to identify the dialect. When both dialects contain a form, the Cuisnahuat version is listed first (i.e., in alphabetical order), followed by the Santo Domingo de Guzman form. Material common to the two dialects is presented only in the Cuisnahuat entry and not repeated for the Santo Domingo de Guzman version. Nevertheless, when there are differences, these are given. Also, occasionally forms from other dialects are also listed, identified by the name of the dialect before the entry.
		Pipil words are given with both a Spanish and an English gloss. The Spanish glosses are given primarily in the local Spanish of this part of El Salvador. When this differs greatly from standard Spanish or the variants understood in Guatemala and Mexico, a more general Spanish translation is also given, if it is known. In some instances, mainly in the case of names for of wild plants and animals, local Spanish usage is all that is known. In such cases, 
a brief description is given. In a few cases the meaning is not secure; these are marked with a question mark in parenthesis, i.e. (ʔ).  In cases where the English name of plants or animals is not known, it is simply listed with the abbreviation sp. standing for "species", e.g. "chichipince", bush sp.  Sometimes various names or distinct pronunciations of a single name for the same thing exist in the local Spanish. In such cases, the multiple names and pronunciations are listed in the glosses, with first priority given to the names used by my consultants.
		The entries also contain morphological information which is not predictable or is otherwise irregular. In unclear cases, the syntactic category of the word is signaled by abbreviations (see list at the beginning of this book) such as t.v. 'transitive verb', 
i.v. 'intransitive verb', n. 'noun', conj., 'conjunction', etc. In particular, nouns are listed with their plurals (pl.) and possessed forms (poss.), since these are not predictable.  Adjectives are also often given with their plural forms. Similarly, verb entries are listed in the present stems (pres.), but their preterite (pret.) and perfect (perf.) forms are also cited, since these, in effect, indicate to which verb class the entry belongs. Since these verb forms are not always predictable from knowledge of their verb class, the actual cases provide additional useful information beyond class membership. Other morphemes named in the entries, together with their abbreviations, are ta- 'unspecified object', causative (caus.), applicative (applic.), object incorporation (incorp.), etc. In particular it is important to keep in mind that reflexive verb forms (abbreviated r.v.) are listed in the dictionary according to the root, and not by the prefix mu- which they bear. Thus, a verb root with both active and reflexive forms has only one entry, but with forms signaled t.v. ('transitive verb') and r.v. ('reflexive verb'). Verbs which only appear as reflexives are given with the mu- prefix, but listed alphabetically according to the root. 
		Forms with a hyphen (-) contain a morpheme boundary. Thus, a hyphen appears between the elements of compound words. Entries with the hyphen at the beginning obligatorily bear some other morpheme, a prefix. For example, intimately (so-called 'inalienably') possessed nouns do not occur without a possessive pronominal prefix; the presence of a hyphen shows this. Also, the absolutive suffix of nouns is separated with a hyphen for greater clarity. Morphemes which have a special shape in compounds or when incorporated are cited with their glosses in single quotes, e.g. ku:- 'head'. When such forms which are known only from compounds but do not appear  as such elsewhere, they are given with the gloss in parentheses, e.g. tankwa- ('knee'). Non-lexical, grammatical morphemes are also cited in single quotes, while other glosses  are found with no special marking or in double quotes ("...").
		The alphabetical order followed strictly in the dictionary is:

		a, a:, b, ch, d, e, f, g, h, i, i:, (j), k, kw, l, 
		m, n, o, o:, p, r, (rr), s, t, u, u:, w, x, y. 

		This order frequently does not permit derivationally related forms to be listed in adjacent entries. However, this is no problem, since related forms contain cross references which indicates the derived forms and where to look for them.
		In addition, certain entries contain important supplementary information. Verbs are often presented with actual examples to show their various forms in use. Frequently, entries are given with their phonetic value in brackets, employing the Pipil orthography to the extent that it is possible. This phonetic information will prove useful not only for irregular pronunciations (which are few), but in distinguishing the differences in pronunciation between Cuisnahuat and Santo Domingo de Guzman. This additional phonetic information may be thought of as in keeping with the pronunciation guides of English and German lexicographic practice, for example.
		Finally, entries are presented with something akin to etymological notes. Thus, hispanisms (Spanish loans) are indicated by the abbreviation Sp., while corresponding or related forms from Classical Nahuatl are signaled by CN. The CN forms are from various sources. Preference was given to Carochi (signaled with the abbreviation Car. after the word), given that Carochi marked vowel length and glottal stop more directly and reliably than other colonial authors. The Carochi material is taken from the dictionary compiled by Adrian et al. (1976) from Carochi's works. A few forms are cited from Una Canger (1980), indicated by UC. When these sources do not have the form or have something different, words are cited from Simeon (1977), abbreviated Sim., a very extensive dictionary. When Simeon proves unclear or incomplete, Molina (1571 (shown as Mol.)) is cited. When a direct equivalent in CN is not found, forms which are possibly related are cited with cf. All such forms are cited in the orthography of the source. Proto-Nahua reconstructions (abbreviated PN) are cited when found in Campbell and Langacker 1978.

A

(SD) abladora (n.)		chismosa
		a gossip, gossipy woman
		Sp. habladora

(SD) abogado(h)  		abogado
		lawyer
		Sp. abogado

(SD) a:chah 			 hacha
		axe
		aha:chah (pl.)
		Sp. hacha
		cf. (C) ha:chah

(C) a:cha:kal  			camaroncillo (a:cha:gał)
		a small shrimp sp.
		-a:cha:kal (poss.)
		aha:cha:kal (pl.)
		cf. a:-t "water", chaka:l-in "shrimp"

(C) achi  			poco, pequeño
		small, little, few
		ahachi (pl.) pocos (few) 
		achih-chin pequeño (little) 
		cf.atsi, atsih-tsin (variant used by some)
		cf. ahatsi:ka  por pocos (almost)
		CN achi (Sim.) poco

(SD) achitah  			hachita, piedra de rayo, centella, obsidiana
		obsidian, piece of worked obsidian
		cf. also senteyah
		Sp. hachita  

(S)  a:chiwal(-)ti   		chigualero,  chijualera (olla para  agua  para hacer tortillas)
		bowl of water for making tortillas
		cf. a:-t "water", chiwa "to make", -l 'passive nominalization'
		CN cf. (?) achiwa (Mol.) "hacer cacao" 

(C) a:chiyu-t  			achiote, bija
		bixa, annotto (a food-coloring condiment)
		-a:chiyu (poss.)
		aha:chiyut (pl.)
		CN achi(y)otl (Sim.) "bija"
(SD) a:chi:yu-t
		-a:chi:yu (poss.)

(C) achka  			cerca
		near
		achka-tsin cerquita ((very) near by)
		CN cf. achka (Sim.) a menudo, frecuentemente

(C) achtu  			primero
		first
		ahachtu (pl.)
		CN achto (Mol.)

(SD) achtu 			primero, mayor, adelante (achtuʔ)
		first, main, major, ahead, before

(SD) adobe(h)  		adobe
		adobe
		Sp. adobe

(SD) adorár, -chiwa (t.v.)  	adorar 
		to adore, worship
		Sp. adorar

(SD) ágila  			águila
		eagle
		Sp. águila

(C) ahahwa (t.v.)  		ladrar, latir, reganar
		to bark, to yelp, to scold, to growl
		ahahwa (pres.) ki-ahahwa "(he) is scolding him" (g(i)yahahwaʔ)
		ahahwa-k (pret.)
		ahahwa-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ahwa "to bark, scold"
		CN aʔwa (Car.)
(SD) ahahwa

(C) ahahwetska (i.v.) 		carcajarse, carcajearse
		to laugh loudly, to cackle, to burst out laughing 
		ahahwetska (pres.) ni-ahahwetska "I'm laughing loudly" 
		ahahwetska-k (pret.)
		ahahwetska-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ah- 'buccal', wetska "to laugh, smile"
		CN ueuetzca (Mol.) "dar carcajadas"

(SD) ahakah  			alguien, alguno (ahagah)
		someone, sombody
		CN akaʔ (Car.) "alguno"
		cf. (C) ka:kah  "someone, somebody"

(C) ahatsi:ka  			por pocos (ahatsi:gaʔ)
		almost, but for a few
		cf. achi, atsi "little"

(C) ahkamacha:lua (i.v.)  	bostezar
	to yawn
	ahkamacha:lua (pres.)  ni-ahkamacha:lua "I yawn" 
	ahkamacha:luh (pret.)
	ahkamacha:luh-tuk (perf.)
	xi-ahkamacha:lu "yawn!"
	cf. ah- 'buccal' 
	cf. (SD) ka:machalua "to yawn"

(C) ahkamalaka-t  		remolino (de aire)
	whirlwind
	ahahkamalakat (pl.)
	cf. ahka:na "to blow", malaka-t "spindle"

(C) ahka:na (t.v.)  		soplar, ventilar (soplar polvillo y basura del maíz, del frijol, del 					arroz, etc.)
	to blow, to fan, to clean (e.g. corn, beans, rice, etc.)
	ahka:na (pres.)
	ahka:n-ki (pret.)
	ahka:n-tuk (perf.)
	cf. (?) ah- 'buccal'
	CN aacana (Sim.) aventar, limpiar con cuidado
(SD) ahka:na

(C)  ahkapah   			acapate, alcapate (acapacle; verdura para comida, hoja para 						sopa)
	"acapate", plant sp.(a vegetable for food, its leaves are put  in soup, plant about a meter 	high, dark green and grey)
	ahahkapah (pl.)
	cf. pah-ti "medicine"
(SD) ahkapah

(C) ahkapatá:l  		acapatal, (lugar de) acapates
	acapate plants, place of acapates
	cf. ahkapah "acapate plant", -ta(:)l 'place of'

(C) ahkapata:ni (i.v.)  volar en la brisa, aletear
	to flap (in the breeze)
	cf. ahka:na "to blow", pata:ni "to fly"
(C) mu-ahkape:wia (r.v.)  	mosquearse, soplar moscas, darse brisa, soplarse
	to fan oneself, to fan or swat flies
	cf. ahka:na "to blow, ventilate", mu-pe:wia "to swat flies"
	CN tla-peuilia (Sim.) "mosquearse"

(C) ahkatik  			liviano, bofito, no pesado
	light, lightweight
	cf. ahka:na "to blow", -tik 'adj.'
	CN (?) acocqui (Mol.)

(SD) ahkawa (t.v.)  		encaminar
	to guide, direct, show the way
	ahkawa (pres.)
	ahkaw(-ki) (pret.)
	ahkaw-tuk (perf.)
	cf. (?) ah- 'buccal', kawa "to leave" 
	CN kahka:wa (Car.); PN *ka:wa "to leave" 
	cf. (C) kahka:wa

(C) ahkawetska (i.v.)  		burlarse de, reirse con burla
	to mock, to laugh at, to make fun of
	ahkawetska (pres.)
	ahkawetska-k (pret.)
	ahkawetska-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ahka:na "to blow", wetska "to laugh"

(SD) ahkawilia  		dejar algo a alguien, dejarselo
	to leave someone something
	cf. kawa "to leave, abandon", -ilia 'applic.'; cf. ahkawa "to show the way"

(C) ahketswetsi (i.v.)  		caerse boca arriba
	to fall down face up
	ahketswetsi (pres.)
	ahketswets-ki (pret.)
	ahketswets-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ah- 'buccal',  ketsa "to stand" (?), wetsi "to fall" CN cf. aquetztoc (Sim.) "estar 	recostado de espaldas"

(C) ahke:wa (t.v.)  		alzar, guardar
	to put up, to pick up, to put away, to store
	ahke:wa (pres.)
	ahke:w-ki (pret.) (ahke:w-giʔ)
	ahke:w-tuk (perf.)

(SD) ahke:wa (t.v.)  		arrancar, despegar
	to pull out, to undo, to take apart
	cf. ahke:wi (i.v.) "to come apart, undone"

(SD) ahke:wi (i.v.)  		arancarse, despegarse
	to come out, undone, apart
	ahke:wi (pres.)
	ahke:w-ki (pret.)
	ahke:w-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ahke:wa (t.v.) "to pull out, to take apart"

(C) ahku  			arriba
	up, above, over, on high
	ne:pa nemi ahku "it's up there"
	CN aʔko (Car.) "en lo alto"
(SD) ahku  arriba
	up, above, over
	Cf. ikahku "arriba" (igahkuʔ)

(SD) ahkukia (t.v.) 		levantar
	to raise, elevate
	ahkukia (pres.) ni-k-ahkukia "I lift it" (nigahkugiyaʔ) 
	ahkukih (pret.), ahkukih-ke-t (pret. pl.)
	ahkukih-tuk (perf.)
	xi-k-ahkuki "lift it!"
	CN cf. acocui (Mol.) "levantarse"
	cf. ahku "up, above"

(C) ahkutapech  		tabanco, tapanco
	loft, attic
	ahahkutapecth (pl.)
	cf. ahku "up", tapech "frame"
(SD) ahkutapech

(SD) ahkuwi  			Barrio del Calvario
	Calvary Barrio (quarter) 
	(also called bárriu calvario) 
	cf. ahku "above"

(C) ahkwe:chiwi (i.v.)  	estornudar to sneeze
	ahkwe:chiwi (pres.) ni-ahkwe:chiwi "I sneeze"
	ahkwe:chiwi-k (pret.)
	ahkwe:chih-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ah- 'buccal', kwe:chiwi "to be insect eaten (finely ground) (?)"
(SD) ahkwechiwi
	ahkwechiw-tuk (perf.)
	x-ahkwechiwi "sneeze!"

(SD) ahnekua (t.v.) 		oler
	to smell (something)
	ahnekua (pres.) ni-k-ahnekua "I smell it" nigahneguwaʔ)
	ahneku (pret.)
	ahneku-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ah- 'buccal', (?) nek-ti "sweet(s)"
	CN tlanecui (Mol.) "recibiendo olor" 
	cf. (C) ihnekwi "to smell"

(SD) ahonholín  		ajonjolín, ajonjolí
	sesame
	Sp. ajonjolí(n)

(C) ahpu:tsa (i.v.)  		eructar
	to burp, to belch
	ahpu:tsa (pres.) ni-ahpu:tsa "I burp"
	ahpu:ts-ki (pret.)
	ahpu:ts-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ah- 'buccal', (?) pu:tsua "to pile up"
(SD) ahpu:tsa (i.v., t.v.)

(C) ahsi (i.v.,  t.v.)  		llegar (aca), hallar, encontrar, alcanzar, caber
	to arrive (here), to find, to encouter; to reach, to catch up with, to fit
	ahsi (pres.) ni-ahsi-k "I aarrived", ni-k-ahsi-k "I found it, I caught up with him"
	ahsi-k (pret.)
	ahsi-tuk (perf.)
	CN aʔsi (Car.) "llegar, alcanzar; PN *ahsi
(SD) ahsi (i.v., t.v.)

(C) ahsi:l  			liendre (huevo de piojo)
	nit, louse egg
	ahsi:lmet, ahahsi:l (pl.)
	cf. (?) perhaps from ahsi "to find", -l 'passive nominalization' ("somehting found")
	CN acilin (Sim.)
	cf. (SD) ahsilti

(C) ahsi:lihtuk (adj.)  		(estar) erizo, erizado 
	having gooseflesh, goosebumps, goosehide 
	cf. -tuk 'perf./adj.'
	cf. (SD) ahsilki:sa "to have goosebumps"

(SD) ahsilki:sa (i.v.)  		erizarse, tener escalofrío 
	to have gooseflesh, goosebumps, chills 
	ahsilki:sa (pres.)
	ahsilki:s-ki (pret.)
	ahsilki:s-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ahsil-ti "nit", ki:sa "to come out"

(SD) ahsil-ti  			liendre 
	nit, louse egg -ahsil (poss.) 
	ahahsilti (pl.) CN 
	acilin (Sim.) 
	cf. (C) ahsi:l

(C) mu-ahsuma (r.v.)  		peinarse (?) 
	to comb oneself (?) 
	mu-ahsuma (pres.)
	mu-ahsun (pret.) 
	mu-ahsun-tuk (perf.)

(SD) a:hu 			ajo
	garlic
	tu-a:hu "our garlic", frequent form 
	Sp. ajo
	cf. (C) a:hus

(C) a:hus  			ajo
	garlic
	Sp. ajos
	cf. (SD) a:hu

(C) ahwa (t.v.)  		reganar, latir, ladrar
	to scold, to bark at, to yelp at
	ahwa (pres.) ki-ahwa "he scolds him", ni-k-ahwa "I scold him" 
	ahwa-k (pret.)
	ahwa-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ti-ahwa (i.v.) "to scold, to yelp"
	CN aʔwa (Car.) "reganar, renir"
(SD) ahwa
	ni-mits-ahwa "I'm castizing you"

(C) ahwa-t  			ajuate, afate, ajtate (polvillo muy fino o basura del 							maicillo, del arroz, etc. que se sopla para sacarlo)
	chaff or dust of sorghum, rice, etc., which is blown or fanned to get rid of it
	i-ahwa-yu (poss.)
(SD) ahwa-t

(C) ahwech  			rocío, sereno
	dew
	CN auechtli, awachtli (Sim.)

(C) ahwi (i.v.)  		mojarse
	to get wet
	ahwi (pres.)
	ahwi-k (pret.)
	ahwi-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ahwilia (t.v.) "to wet, dampen", t-ahwi:lia "to wet something"
(SD) ahwi

(C) ahwilia (also ahwi:lia) (t.v.)	mojar, regar
	to wet, to dampen, to water, to throw water on
	ahwilia (pres.) xi-k-ahwi:li "wet it!"
	ahwilih (pret.)
	ahwilih-tuk (perf.)
	cf. t-ahwilia "to wet something, mu-ahwilia (r.v.) "to get (oneself) wet"
	cf. ahwi "to wet, -lia 'applic.'
	CN aʔwilia (Car.) "regar"

(C) ahwiyak  				sabroso
	delicious
	ahahwiyak (pl.)
	CN aʔwiyak (Car.) "cosa suave, olorosa, y gustosa" 
(SD) ahwiyak     

(C) ahxitia (t.v.)  			arrimar, acercar
	to place near, to put beside
	ahxitia (pres.)
	ahxitih (pret.) ni-k-ahxitih "I moved it near"
	ahxitih-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ahsi "to arrive, find", -tia 'caus.'
	CN aʔxi:tia (Car.)

(SD) ahxitia (t.v.) 			ajustar
	to complete, to fit

(SD) aihada, eihadah  			ahijada
	goddaughter
	Sp. ahijada

(SD) aihaduh, eihaduh  		ahijado
	godson
	Sp. ahijado

(C) a:istak  				pálido
	pale
	cf. a:-t "water", istak "white"
(SD) a:istak

(SD) a:i:xtia (t.v.)  			sacar del agua, sacar del río
	to take out of the water, out of the river
	a:i:xtia (pres.)
	a:i:xtih (pret.) ki-a:-i:xtih "she took it out of the water" (giya(y)i:xtih), ni-k-a:-i:xtih "I  	got it out of the water" (niɣa(y)i:xtih)
	a:i:xtih-tuk (perf.)
	cf. a:ki:xtia (i.v.) "to have diarrhea"
	cf. a:-t "water", (k)i:xtia "to take out, get out"
	CN  aquixtia (Sim.) "enjuagar, lavar ropa, pasarla por el agua"
	cf. (C) a:ki:xtia

(C) a:kalaki (i.v.)  			entrar en el agua, hundirse
	to go into the water, to sink
	a:kalaki (pres.)
	a:kalak (pret.)
	a:kalak-tuk (perf.)
	cf.  a:kalaktia  (t.v.) "to put something in water, to sink something"
	cf. a:-t "water", kalaki "to enter"
(SD) a:kalaki

(C) a:kalaktia (t.v.)  			hundir
	to submerge, to immerse
	a:kalaktia (pres.)
	a:kalaktih (pret.) ni-a:kalaktih "I put it in water,  I  sank it"
	a:kalaktih-tuk (perf.)
	cf. a:kalaki (i.v.) "to go into the water", -tia 'caus.'
(SD) a:kalaktia

(C) a:kapeta-t   			acapetate (petate con cuadros, afigurados)
	mat with figures, pictures woven in
	-a:kapeta-w (poss.)
	aha:kapetat (pl.)
	cf. a:ka-t "reed", peta-t "mat"
	CN acapetlatl (Sim.) "estera de junco, petate" 
(SD) a:kapeta-t

(C) a:ka-t  				carrizo, vara
	reed, thin cane(s)
	a:ka-w (poss.) nu-a:ka-w "my reed" nu(w)a:gaW) 
	aha:kat (pl.)
	CN a(:)katl (Car.); PN *a:ka-

(SD) a:ka-t  				carrizo, garlito, garlo
	reed, cane, fish trap, small fish trap

(C) a:katal  				carrizos, lugar de carrizos, carrizal 
	reeds, place of reeds, canebreak
	cf. a:ka-t "reed", -ta(:)l 'place of'

(C) a:ki:xtia (t.v.)  			sacar del agua
	to take out of the water
	a:ki:xtia (pres.)
	a:ki:xtih (pret.) ni-k-a:ki:xtih "I took it out of the water" (gina:gi:xtih)
	a:ki:xtih-tuk (perf.)
	cf. a:ki:xtia (i.v.) "to have diarrhea"
	cf. a:-t "water", ki:xtia "to take out, get out"
	CN aquixtia (Sim."enjuagar, pasarla por el agua, lavar ropa" 
	cf. (SD) a:i:xtia

(C) a:ki:xtia (i.v.) 			cursear, cursiar, tener diarrea
	to have diarrhea
	a:ki:xtia (*pres.) ni-a:ki:xtia "I have diarrhea" (n(i)ya:gi:xtiyaʔ)
	a:ki:xtih (pret.)
	a:ki:xtih-tuk (perf.)
	cf. a:ki:xtia (t.v.) "to take out of the water"
(SD) a:ki:xtia (i.v.)

(C) a:ku:wa-t  				anguilla, anguila
	eel
	aha:ku:wat (pl.)
	cf. a:-t "water", ku:wa-t "snake"
	CN acoatl (Sim.)

(SD) a:ku:xi  				pepeto, pepetillo, cujin, una paternita
	tree sp., has large pod with edible seeds, grows near the river, like a "paterna" tree
	a:-t "water", ku:xi "paterna tree"
	cf. (C) a:ku:xine

(C) a:ku:xine  				pepeto
	tree sp., with large pod with edible seeds, grows near the river, like a "paterna" tree
	cf. a:-t "water", ku:xine "paterna tree"
	cf. (SD) a:ku:xi

(C, SD) -al-,  (w)al-   			prefijo 'direccional' de verbos, "hacia acá" 
	'directional' verb prefix, "hither"
	cf. wa:lah "to come" (pret.)
	CN -wal-

(C) -al-ahsi (t.v.) "to find"; see (w)al-ahsi
(SD) -al-ahsi (t.v.) "to reach"; see (w)al-ahsi

(C) alak-michin  			ilama (pescado liso)
	fish sp., similar to an eel, smooth
	cf. al(a:w)ak "smooth", michin "fish" 
	cf. lamah-michin, synonym used by some

(C) alak-xuku-t  			jobo
		hogplum sp.
		cf. al(a:w)ak "smooth", xuku-t "jocote" (hogplum)

(C) a:la:má:l, a:la:má:r  		la mar
	ocean, sea
	Sp. a la mar
(SD) a:la:ma:l 
	ka:la:má:l  	to the sea

(SD) alambre(h)  			alambre
	wire
 
(SD) a-la-pwerkah  		a la puerca! (híjole!)
		sun-of-a-gun
		Sp. a la puerca
	
(C) -al-a:na (t.v.)  		to bring, to fetch; see (w)al-a:na
(SD) al-a:na
	
(C) ala:wak  			liso, ligoso
		slick, smooth, slimy
		cf. also ta:la:wak "smooth"
		CN alauac (Sim.) "liso,  resbaloso",  alaua (Sim.) "resbalar"       
(SD) ala:wak
	
(SD) albanyíl  			albañil
		mason, builder 
		Sp. albañil

(SD) alegre(h)  		alegre happy, fun
		nemi alegre(h)  "(the fiesta) is fun"
		Sp. alegre

(C) -al-ehku (i.v.) 		"to arrive (here)"; see (w)al-ehku 
(SD) -al-ehku

(C)-al-i:ka (t.v.) "to bring"; see (w)al-i:ka
		cf. (w)al-wi:ka
	
(C) -al-i:sa (i.v.) 		"to wake up"; see (w)al-i:sa
(SD) -al-i:sa (i.v., t.v.) to wake up, to remember
	
(C) alistár, mu-chiwa (r.v.)  	prepararse
		to prepare, to get ready
		Sp. alistar(se)
	
(SD) -al-i:xtia (t.v.)  		"to take out, get out"; see (w)al-i:xtia

(C) -al-ixtu:na  "to be late, to delay"; see (w)al-ixtu:na
	
(C) alkalabú:s  		calabozo, cárcel
		jail
		Sp. al calabozo

(C) -al-ki:sa (i.v.) "to  leave (from outside)"; see (w)al-ki:sa 
(SD) -al-ki:sa

(C) -al-ki:xtia (t.v.) "to take out"; see (w)al-ki:xtia
	(C) -al-kwi (t.v.) "to bring (here)"; see (w)al-kwi
	(SD) -al-kwi (t.v.) "to take, grab"
	
(C) a:lmah  		alma, anima
		soul
		Sp. alma
(SD) a(:)lmah  	alma, muerto, ánima
		soul, corpse
		-almah (poss.)
		ahálmamet (pl.) "ánimas" (souls)       

(SD) almendres  	almendra (palo de, árbol de)
		almond tree
		Sp. almendras

(SD) almun  		arroba
		a 25-pound measure of corn, beans, rice, etc.
		na:wi almun 	 four arrobas (un quintal)
		Sp. almud

(C) -al-naka (i.v.) 	"to stay, remain"; see (w)al-naka

(SD) -al-na:miki (t.v.) "to believe"; see (w)al-na:miki

(C) -al-mu-ne:lwia (r.v.) "to hurry"; see (w)al-mu-ne:lwia

(C) -al-ne:si (i.v.) "to appear, show up"; see (w)al-ne:si

(C) -al-nu:tsa (t.v.) "to call, go call"; see (w)al-nu:tsa

(C) -al-ta:kati "to be born, begin to grow"; see (w)al-ta:kati

(C) altal, altár  	altar
		altar
		Sp. altar
(SD) altár

(C) -al-temu (i.v.)  	"to descend, get down"; see (w)al-temu

(C) -a:ltia (t.v., r.v.)  	bañar, baãarse
		to bathe
		-a:ltia (pres.) ni-m-a:ltia "I'm bathing (myself)", ni-k-a:ltia "I'm bathing him/her/it"
		-a:ltih (pret.) ni-m-a:ltih-a "I already bathed" 
		-a:ltih-tuk (perf.) ni-m-a:ltih-tuk "I have taken a bath" 
		cf. a:-t "water", -tia 'caus.'
		CN altia (Car.)
(SD) -a:ltia

(C) -al-tsinki:sa (i.v.) "to leave in hiding"; see (w)al-tsinki:sa
(SD) -al-tsinki:sa (i.v.) "to approach, draw near"

(C) alwa:si:l  		alguacil  (policía auxiliar)
		(auxiliary) policeman
		ahalwa:si:lmet (pl.)
		Sp. alguacil
(SD) alwa:sil

(C) -al-wi:ka (t.v.)	"to bring"; see (w)al-wi:ka
(SD) -al-wi:ka

(C) al-xi:ni "to scatter, fall (e.g. fruit, seeds)"; see (w)al-xi:ni

(C) a:ma-ita  (t.v., incorp.)  	leer
		to read
		a:ma-ita (pres.) ni-a:ma-ita ni-nemi "I am reading" 
		a:ma-ita-k (pret.), also a:ma-its-ki, used by some a:ma-its-tuk (perf.)
		cf. a:ma-t "paper, book", ita "to see"

(C) a:makah  		hamaca
		hammock
		-a:makah (poss.)
		aha:makah (pl.)
		Sp. hamaca
(SD) a:maka(h)  (a:maka(h))

(C) a:ma-t  		amate, papel, libro
		fig tree sp., paper, book
		-a:ma-w (poss.) nu-a:ma-w "my paper, my book" 
		cf. a:ma-tal "(many) amates, many papers"
		CN a:matl (Car.) "papel, libro"; PN *a:ma
(SD) a:ma-t
		aha:mat (pl.)  

(C) a:matal  		muchos amates, muchos papeles
		many "amate" trees, many papers
		cf. a:ma-t "amate tree, paper, -ta(:)l 'place of'

(C) a:matskal  		jáiba
		large crab
		aha:matskal (pl.)
		a:matskal-tsin ('diminutive')
		cf. (?) a:-t "water", kal "house"
		CN amatzcalli (Sim.) "concha, mejillón"

(SD) amehemet 		ustedes
		you (pl.)
		CN amehuan(tin) 
		cf. (C) an-ehemet

(C) a:mesawi  			ahogarse 
		to drown
		a:mesawi (pres.) ni-a:mesawi "I'm drowning" 
		a:mesawi-k (pret.)
		a:mesah-tuh (perf.)
		cf. (?) a:-t "water"

(C) a:miki (i.v.)  		tener sed
		to be thirsty
		a:miki (pres.) ni-a:miki "I'm thirsty" (nia:migiʔ) 
		a:miki-k (pret.)
		a:mik-tuk (perf.)
		cf. a:-t "water", miki "to die"
		CN amiqui (Sim.)
(SD) a:miki

(C) a:mi:guh  			amigo, compañero
		friend, companion
		-a:mi:guh (poss.)
		Sp. amigo
(SD) a(:)mi(:)guh             

(C) a:mistan  		"Agua de gato", Amistán (un ojo de agua, presa) 
		Amistán (place name, place with a spring of water)
		cf. a:-t "water", mis ('cat'), -tan 'place of' 
		CN cf. amiztli (Sim.) "león marino"

(SD) ampo(:)yah  		ampolla
		blister
		Sp. ampolla

(SD) a:mu(h)  			patrón, amo
		boss, master 
		Sp. amo

(C) a:muku  			cacarico (camaroncito)
		small shrimp sp., hunched up in form a:-t "water" 
		cf. (SD) mu:ku "cacarico"

(C) a:mux  			lana, musgo
		water moss
		cf. a:-t "water"
		CN cf. amoxtli (Sim.) "planta abundante en el lago de México" 
(SD) a:mux

(SD) a:n  			ahora, hoy, entonces
		now, today, now then

(C) a:na (t.v.)  			agarrar, recoger 
		to grab, to pick up
		a:na (pres.)
		a:n-ki (pret.) ni-k-a:n-ki "I grabbed it"  (niga: ŋgiʔ) 
		a:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C, SD) tah-a:na "to grab something"
		CN ana (Mol.) "tomar, prender"

(SD) a:na  			recoger, guardar, alzar (la mesa)
		to pick up, to put away, to clear (the table)

(C) a:na:wak  			brisa
		breeze
		cf. a:-t "water", -na:wak "near"
		CN cf. anauac (Sim.) "cerca del agua, del mar"

(C) an-ehemet  		ustedes  (aŋehemet)
		you (pl.)
		CN amehuan(tin)
		cf. (SD) amehemet

(SD) anhel  			ángel
		angel
		Sp. angel

(SD) animál  			animal 
		Sp. animal

(SD) anisiyu(h)  		palo de anís
		a plant that smells like anise 
		Sp. anisillo

(C) a:ni:yuh  			anillo
		ring
		Sp. anillo

(C) anka  			quizás
		perhaps, maybe
(SD) anka  			así
		thus, in this way

(C) anka-kiya  		quizás así
		perhaps so, maybe in this way 
		cf. anka "perhaps", kiya "thus"
(SD) anka-kiya 	quizás si, ahora si (áŋga-kiyaʔ)
		perhaps yes; that's it/now it's ready

(SD) anka ke:ski  		cuánto vale?
		how much does it cost?

(C) a:pachua (t.v., r.v.)  	mojar, hundir, sumergir
		to put in water, to wet, to sink, to submerge, to immerse a:pachua (pres.) 
		ni-k-a:pachua "I put it in the water",  
		ni-mu-a:pachua "I jump in the water"
		a:pachuh (pret.)
		a:pachuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. a:-t "water", pachua "to flatten, hold down"
		CN apachoa (Sim.) "empapar, mojar, regar"
(SD) a:pachua (t.v., r.v.)

(SD) mu-a:paka (r.v.)  	lavarse
		to wash oneself
		mu-a:paka (pres.)
		mu-a:paka-k (pret.)
		mu-a:pak-tuk (perf.) ni-mu-a:pak-tuk "I have washed (myself)" 
		cf. a:-t "water", pa:ka "to wash"

(C) a:pan  			río
		river
		ni-yu ka a:pan "I'm going to the river" 
		cf. a:-t "water", -pan 'in, place of'

(C) a:panti  			apante, regadío
		irrigated field
		-a:panti (poss.) nu-a:panti "my apante field"
		cf. a:-t "water", -pan 'in, place of', -ti frozen 'absolutive'
		CN cf. apantli (Sim.) acequia, canal

(SD) a:pawiyani  		chonta, sinsontle
		mocking bird

(SD) apenas 			apenas
		scarcely, barely
		Sp. apenas

(SD) a:petasul  		un gusano pelado del río, un insecto acuático con cien pies
		a water insect with one hundred legs
		aha:petasul (pl.)
		cf. a:-t "water", peta-t "mat", -sul ('pejorative' [?])

(C)  a:pitsa (i.v.)  		cursiar, cursear, tener currencia, tener diarrea
		to have diarrhea
		a:pitsa (pres.)  ni-a:pitsa "I have diarrhea"
		a:pits-ki (pret.)
		a:pits-tuk (perf.)
		cf. a:-t "water", pitsa "to blow"
		CN apitza (Sim.) "tener diarrea"; PN *a:-pi:tsa
(SD) a:pitsa  tener diarrea, cagar, defecar
		to have diarrhea, to defecate

(SD) a:pitsal  		curso, diarrea
		diarrhea
		cf. a:pitsa "to blow", -l 'passive nominalization' 
		CN apitzalli (Sim.) "diarrea"

(C) apsul  		agua caliente, agua herviendo
		hot water, boiling water
		cf. (?) a:-t "water"

(C) apsulwia (t.v.)  	echar agua caliente
		to put water on to boil (?), to heat water (?)
		apsulwia (pres.)
		apsulwih (pret.)
		apsulwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. apsul "hot water"
		cf. (SD) a:t tutu:n "hot water"

(C) a:puhpu  		puspo, pálido, descolorido (sólamente de personas) 
		pale, colorless (of people)
		aha:puhpu (pl.)
(SD) a:puhpu  

(SD) aradoh  		arado
		plow
		Sp. arado

(SD) aradór 		 arador 
		plowman
		Sp. arador
(SD) arina(h)  			harina 
		flour
		Sp. harina

(C) ari:tas  			arete 
		earring
		-ari:tas (poss.) 
		ahari:tas (pl.) 
		Sp. arito
		cf. (SD) aritu

(SD) aritu  			arete 
		earring
		Sp. arito
		cf. (C) ari:tas
(SD) arranka-sebu  		"arranca-sebo" (una avispota)
		large wasp sp., literally "tears out tallow"
		Sp. arranca sebo

(SD) arriadora  		arriera (hormiga), garriador (zompopo) 
		driver ant
		Sp. arreadora

(C) arrós  			arróz
		rice
		Sp. arróz

(S) arrosero  			arrocero (tordito)
		bird sp. (rice-eating thrush ?) 
		Sp. arrocero

(SD) asadón  			azadón
		large hoe sp.
		Sp. azadon

(C) a:sesek  			sin sabor, simple (de comidas), insipido 
		insipid, tasteless
		aha:sesek (pl.)
		cf. a:-t "water", sesek "cold"
		CN acecec (Sim.) "desagradable, que tiene mal sabor"

(SD) asesinu(h)  		asesino
		killer, murderer, assassin
		Sp. asesino

(SD) askaw  			quebracho blanco
		quebracho tree (very hard wood, thick trunk, literally "break-axe" tree)

(SD) asperár -chiwa; esperár, -chiwa 		esperar
		to wait, to expect
		Sp. esperar

(SD) asta  		asta, palo
		pole, staff 
		Sp. asta

(C) asta  		hasta 
		until
		Sp. hasta
		cf. also axta 
(SD) asta

(C) a(:)su  		si
		if, whether 
		cf. su "si"

(C) a:su:hkal  		azúcar 
		sugar
		Sp. azúcar

(SD) asusena  		azucena 
		white lily
		Sp. azucena

(C) a:-t  		agua, río, lluvia, pozo
		water, river, rain, well, pool
		-a:-w (poss.) i-a:-w "her water" (iyaw:W)
		i-a:-yu (intimate poss.)  i-a:-yu kuku "coconut juice"
		CN a:tl (Car.); PN *a:-
(SD) a:-t
		nu-a:  "my water"
		cf. a:t tutu:n "hot water"

(C) a:tahtsumpan  		"Punta de Agua" (lugar donde nace un  río)
		"Point of the River" (place name, where a river comes out of the ground)
		cf. a:-t "water", ah- (?) 'buccal', -tsumpan "point, top"

(SD) a:teki (i.v.)  		regar
		to wet, to sprinkle, to irrigate
		a:teki (pres.)
		a:tek (pret.) a:teki-k-a "he already irrigated"
		a:tek-tuk (perf.)
		cf. a:-t "water", teki (?) "work"
		cf. (C) a:te(:)kia (t.v.) "to wet, to irrigate"

(C) a:te(:)kia (t.v., r.v.) 		regar, mojar, mojarse
		to wet, sprinkle, irrigate
		a:te(:)kia (pres.) ni-mu-a:te:kia "I put water  on  myself" (nim(u)wa:te:giyaʔ), 
			ni-k-a:te:kia "I'm sprinkling  it" (niga:te:giyaʔ)
		a:te(:)kih (pret.)
		a:te(:)kih-tuk (perf.)
		CN atequia (Sim.) "mojar a alguien,  echarse agua encima, regar, mojar"
		cf. (SD) a:teki (i.v.) "to wet, to irrigate"

(C) a:tepe:wa (t.v.) 		mojar, echarle bastante agua
		to water plentifully, to put on lots of water
		a:tepe:wa (pres.)
		a:tepe:h (pret.) ni-k-a:tepe:h-a "I already watered it profusely"
		a:tepe:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. a:-t "water", tepe:wa "to pile on"
(SD) a:tepe:wa
		a:tepe:w (pret.), also a:tepe:w-ki  
		ni-k-a:tepe:w-ki "I wet it down" (niga:tepe:wgiʔ)
		a:tepe:w-tuk (perf.)

(C) a:ti (i.v.) 			beber
		to drink
		a:ti (pres.) ni-a:ti "I'm drinking" 
		a:ti-k (pret.) ni-a:ti-k "I drank" 
		a:ti-tuk (perf.)
		xi-a:ti "drink!"
		cf. a:-t "water"
		CN cf. ati(a) (Sim.) "echarse en agua, fundirse" 
(SD) a:ti

(C) atime-t  			piojo  
		louse
		-atin (poss.) mu-atin "your louse"
		ahatimet (pl.)
		CN atemitl (Sim.); PN *atəmV-
(SD) atime-t

(C) atimputs, atin-puts  	piojoso  (atimputs), (atiŋputs) 
		lousy
		cf. atime-t "louse", putsua "to pile up"

(SD) a:tuki (t.v.)  		ahogarse
		to drown
		a:tuki (pres.)  ni-a:tuki "I'm drowning"
		a:tuki-k (pret.)
		a:tuki-tuk (perf.)
		cf. a:-t "water"
		CN atoctia (Sim.)

(C) atu:l  			atol, atole
		atole (a corn drink)
		-atu:l (poss.)
		CN a:to:lli (Car.); PN *ato:l-

(C) a:tultik  			pálido, descolorido (de gente) 
		pale (of people)
		aha:tultik (pl.)
		cf. a:-t "water", tul-tik "yellow"
		CN cf. atoltic (Sim.) "maduro, tierno, blando"

(SC) a:t tutu:n  		agua caliente
		hot water
		cf. a:-t "water", tutu:ni-k "hot"
		cf. (C) apsul "hot water"          

(SD)  atsakwani   		azacuán, patillos del mar, patitos de verano, palomitas del mar
		bird sp. (aquatic ?, seen only in summer, fly in large flocks, size of a small hawk)
		ahatsakwani (pl.)
		cf. a:-t "water",  tsakwa "to cover, to close", -ni 'agent', literally "water coverer, water 			closer"
		CN cf. atzaquani (Sim.) "él que detiene el agua, impide que se escape"

(C) atsi, achi  			poco, pequeño
		small, little, few
		(some say atsi, but achi is more common) 
		cf. achi

(SD) awahe  			aguacero
		thunderstorm, strong rain
		SP. (?) agua(cero)

(C) a:waka-t  			aguacate avocado
		-a:waka-w (poss.) aha:wakat (pl.)
		CN auacatl (Sim.); PN *a:waka-
(SD) a:waka-t

(SD) a:wa(-)t  			aguate, bellota
		bud (?), banana flower, sorghum flower, (?) acorn 
		-a:wat (poss.) nu-a:wat "my 'aguate' (bud)" 
		aha:wat (pl.)
		CN cf. a:watl (Car.) "encina, carrasca"

(SD) a:wia (t.v.) 		lavar por primera vez (como ropa nueva) 
		to wash for the first time (e.g. new clothes)
		a:wia (pres.)
		a:wih(-ki) (pret.)
		a:wih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) a:-t "water"

(C) a:wil-ti  			juguete
		toy
		-a:wil (poss.) nu-a:wil "mi juguete"
		aha:wilti (pl.)
		a:wil-tsitsin "juguetillos" (small toys) (-tsin 'diminutive') 
		cf. a:wiltia "to play"
(SD) a:wil-ti

(C) a:wiltia (t.v., r.v.) 		jugar
		to play 
		a:wiltia (pres.) ni-m-a:ltia "I  play", ni-k-a:ltia "I'm playing it"
		a:wiltih (pret.)
		a:wiltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. a:wil-ti "toy"
		CN auiltia (Sim.) "divertirse, pasar alegremente el tiempo"
(SD) a:wiltia

(C) a:xa:l  			arena
		sand
		cf. a:-t "water", xa:l ('sand')
		CN axalli (Sim.)
(SD) a:xa:l

(SD) a:xa:l-in  		ajalin (clase de cangrejo) 
		sand crab
		cf. (?) a:xa:l "sand", -in 'absolutive' 
		cf. (C) a:xa:ltekwisih

(C) a:xa:l-tekwisih  		ajalin (clase de cangrejo)
		aha:xa:ltekwisih (pl.)
		cf. a:xa:l "sand", tekwisih "crab"
		cf. (SD) a:xa:lin

(C) a:xa:luwas  		piedra de afilar
		whetstone
		-a:xa:luwas (poss.)
		aha:xa:luwas (pl.)
		cf. a:xa:l "sand"
		CN cf. axalli (Sim.) "especie de arena usada en la talla de piedras preciosas"
(SD) a:xa:luwas

(C) a:xa:n  			ahora, hoy
		now, today
		a:xa:n-san "right now, this very day" 
		CN a:xka:n (Car.)
(SD) a(:)xa(:)n
		cf. a:n "now, today"

(SD) a:xi:l-in  			caracolito de mar, conchita 
		a small sea snail, small shell
		cf. (?) a:-t "water"

(SD) a:xi:wi-t 			xigüit (xihuit) del río (un monte del río) 
		a river plant with long, white flowers
		cf. a:-t "water"
		NC cf. xiuitl (Sim.) "hierba, hoja"

(C) a:xi:x  			orina, meados
		urine
		-a:xi:x (poss.)
		cf. a:-t "water", xi:xa "to urinate"
		CN axixtli (Sim.)  
		cf. (SD) xi:x-ti

(C) -a:xi:x-tekun  		vejiga
		bladder
		-a:xi:x-tekun (poss.)
		cf. a:xi:x "urine", tekuma-t "bottle gourd"
		CN axixtecomatl (Sim.)

(C) axkanel  			iscanal 
		tree sp., has many thorns, long branches
		cf. (SD) ixkanal

(C) axta  			hasta
		until, to
		axta ni:kan  "up to here"
		Sp. hasta
		cf. asta

(C) a:yekuh  			ayeco, chilipuca, frijol de castilla
		bean sp., round with one white spot, with long pods, smells of dirt when it is cooking
		CN ayecotle (Sim.) "frijoles muy grandes como habas"

(C) ayuh  			ayote (una clase de calabaza grande)
		squash sp., pumpkin
		-ayuh (poss.) ahayuh (pl.)
		CN ayoʔtli (Car.) "calabaza"; PN *ayoh-
(SD) ayuh

(C) ayuhwach  		alguaxte, semilla de ayote (calabaza) 
		pumpkin seed, squash seed
		cf. ayuh "pumpkin"
		CN ayouachtli, ayoachtli (Sim.) "semilla de calabaza"; cf. PN *a:ch- "seed"
(SD) ayuhwach

(SD) ayunar, -chiwa 		ayunar
		to fast
		Sp. ayunar

(SD) -ayura  			aparejo
		packsaddle 
		Sp. (?) ayuda

(C) ayutal  			ayotal, muchos ayotes 
		pumpkins, pumpkin patch
		cf. ayuh "pumpkin", -ta(:)l 'place of'
	
(SD) a:yu:-tsin  		tortuga del monte
		small land turtle
		cf. -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN ayotl (Sim.) "tortuga"; PN a:yo:-

B
	
(C) bainah  			vaina
		pod, sheath, scabbard
		-bainah-yu (poss.)  i-bainah-yu "its pod (of plant)" 
		Sp. vaina
	
(SD) bakunár, -chiwa  	vacunar
		to vaccinate
		Sp. vacunar
	
(SD) balde(h)  		balde, cubeta
		bucket, pail
		Sp. balde
	
(SD) balór  			valor
		value, worth; bravery, valor
	
(SD) bambu(h)  		bambú
		bamboo
		Sp. bambú

(SD) banketa  			banqueta 
		stool
		Sp. banqueta

(SD) bankuh  			banco 
		bench
		Sp. banco

(SD) barabatón  		bambú 
		bamboo sp.
		Sp. vara-baton

(SD) barkuh  			barco 		
		trough, boat
		Sp. barco

(SD) barriu  			barrio
		barrio, ward, quarter
		barriu rosario "Barrio del Rosario" (also called katani " below")
		barriu calvario "Barrio del Calvario" (also calle ahkuwi "above") 
	
(SD) basta  			¡basta!
		that's enough!, stop it!
		Sp. basta

(SD) bautisár, -chiwa  		bautizar to baptize
		Sp. bautizar

(SD) bayeh  				valle
		valley
		Sp. valle

(C) -bechi  				vecino 
		neighbor 
		-bechi (poss.) nu-bechi "my neighbor" 
		cf. also -besi:nuh "neighbor"
		Sp. (?) vecino

(SD) belar, -chiwa  			velar
		to watch, guard (to stay awake) 
		Sp. velar            

(SD) bendedor  			vendedor
		merchant, seller, vender
		Sp. vendedor

(SD) bendedora  			vendedora
		merchant woman, woman seller
		Sp. vendedora

(C) bendesír, -chiwa  			bendecir
		to bless
		Sp. bendecír
(SD) bendesir, -chiwa

(SD) benenu(h)  			veneno
		poison
		Sp. veneno

(SD) -bentanah -yak  			narices
		nostrils
		i-bentanah nu-yak "my nostril(s)"
		cf. Sp. ventana "window", -yak 'nariz'

(C) berdo:lake  			verdolaga
		purslane (edible plant)
		Sp. verdolaga
		cf. (SD) berdulaga(h)

(SD) berdulaga(h)  			verdolaga
		purslane (edible plant) 
		Sp.verdolaga
		cf. (C) berdo:lake

(SD) bersoh  				verso, canción 
		verse, song
		Sp. verso

(C) -besi:nuh  				vecino 
		neighbor
		cf. also -bechi "neighbor" 
		Sp. vecino  
(SD) besi:nuh

(SD) basu(h)  				vaso
		(drinking) glass
		Sp. vaso

(SD) bestir, (mu)-chiwa  		vestir(se) 
		to dress (oneself)
		Sp. vestir(se)

(C) bi:dah  				sabroso, rico, gusto 
		delicious, good
		Sp. vida

(SD) bidah 				la vida
		life
		Sp. vida

(C) bien  				favor 
		favor 
		xi-k-chiwa ne bien "please", "do me a favor!" 
		Sp. bien

(SD) bie:pta, yepta  			antier, anteayer
		day before yesterday, three days ago
		cf. wi:pta "day after tomorrow"
		CN yeouiptla (Mol.), yeueyupan (Sim.)
		cf. (C) ya:wepta

(SD) bigoteh  bigote
	moustache
	Sp. bigote

(SD) bigriyu(h)  			vidrio
		glass
		Sp. vidrio  (vigrio, local pronunciation)

(SD) bigruh  				botella, vidrio
		bottle, glass
		Sp. vidrio (vigrio, local pronunciation)

(SD) bilubyo, dilubyo    		diluvio
		flood
		Sp. diluvio

(SD) birwelah  			viruela
		(small)pox
		Sp. viruela

(SD) bisitante  			visitante 
		visitor
		Sp. visitante

(SD) bisiu(h)  				vicio
		bad habit, vice
		Sp. vicio

(C) blu:sah  				blusa
		blouse
		Sp. blusa

(SD) bobo, michin bobo   		pescado bobo 
		fish sp., "dumb" fish
		Sp. bobo "stupid"; cf. michin "fish"

(SD) bodah  				boda
		wedding
		Sp. boda

(SD) bolida  				vuelo 
		flight
		Sp. (?) volado

(SD) bolkán, bulkán   			volcán 
		volcano, mountain
		Sp. volcán

(SD) bordár, -chiwa  			bordar 
		to embroider
		Sp. bordar

(SD) -bordón, bordón   		bordón 
		walking cane, staff 
		nu-bordón "my cane"
		Sp. bordón

(SD) borbunar, -chiwa  		burbujear 
		to bubble
		Sp. (?) borbollonear

(SD) bo:ta(h) 				bota
		boot
		Sp. bota

(SD) botaka   				botadora, butaca 
		armchair
		Sp. butaca

(C) boteyah, boteah   			botella 
		bottle
		Sp. botella
(SD) boteya(h)  			botella, bote 
		bottle, (tin)can

(SD) botón   				botón
		button
		Sp. botón

(SD) brabu(h)  			arisco, bravo 
		surly, angry
		Sp. bravo

(SD) brisa(h)  				brisa
		breeze
		Sp. brisa
		tik brisah "in the open air" ("al aire libre") 
		wi:ts brisah duro "there's a strong wind"

(C) bruhah  				bruja
		witch, sorceress
		Sp. bruja
(SD) bruha(h)  			bruja, mágica
		witch, magic

(SD) bruhu(h)  			huracan, brujo 
		strong wind, witch, sorcerer 
		Sp. brujo

(C) -buchi  				manzana (de Adán) 
		Adam's apple
		nu-buchi "my Adam's apple" 
		Sp. buche "craw, gullet"
(SD) -buchi, -buche  			tragadera, buche 
		craw, gullet, throat
		i-buchi "its craw"

(SD) bulkán, bolkán  			volcán 
		volcano, mountain
		Sp. volcán

(SD) burgár, -chiwa  			burgar, bramear, bramar
		to bellow, to roar, to howl
		Sp. burgar

(SD)  burruh    	burro (marco de madera que se pone debajo de la piedra de moler)
		wooden frame put under the quern (metate) for support
		Sp. burro

(SD) burru(h), burra(h)  		burro, burra
		burro, donkey
		Sp. burro, burra

(SD) bwelto(h), welto(h)  		vuelto, cambio
		change (money)

(SD) bwenas diyas  			buenos días
		good morning
		Sp. buenos dias

(SD) bwenas tardes  			buenas tardes
		good afternoon          

(SD) bwey  				buey
		ox
		Sp. buey 

CH

(C) chacha  			la chacha (pájaro)
		bird sp. (a bird which sings a lot)
		chahchacha (pl.)

(SD) chachalaka (i.v.)  	sonar feo (tener mal sonido) 
		to sound bad
		chachalaka (pres.)
		chachalaka-k (pret.)
		chachalaka-tuk (perf.) (?)
		CN cf. chachachalaca (Sim.) "gritar, hablar en voz alta"

(SD) chachapal  		tunca parida, marrana con su cría
		sow with piglets

(C)  chachawa-t   		chachaguate, guate, endosado, chacho (guineo o mango 						endosado, que sale dos en uno, gemelo)
		doubled or twin, of fruit where two are joined in one
		CN cf. (?) chachauatl (Sim.) "lirón"; (Mol.) "animal como rata"
(SD) chachawa-t

(SD) chahchakwa:ni (t.v., redup.(?))  	machucar, picar
		to mash, to cut up
		chahchakwa:ni (pres.) ni-k-chahchakwa:ni "I mash it" 
		chahchakwa:n, chahchakwa:n-ki (pret.) 
		chahchakwa:n-tuk (perf.)

(C) chahchalua (t.v., redup.)    		dar golpes, estar golpeando
		to beat
		CN chachaloa (Sim.) "endurecer algo"
		cf. chalua "to hit, to beat"
(SD) chahchalua

(SD) chahchankwa (t.v., redup.)  		masticar
		to chew
		chahchankwa (pres.) ni-k-chahchankwa "I'm chewing it"
		chahchankwah (pret.)
		chahchankwah-tuk (perf.)
		cf. -kwa "to eat"
		cf. (C) chunkwahkwa "to chew"

(C) chahchi:l-kwawi-t  			guacoco
		tree sp., a small tree with round, red fruit which birds eat 
		cf. chi:l- 'red', kwawi-t "tree" 

(C) chakal-in  			camarón
		shrimp
		chahchakalin (pl.)
		CN chacalin (Mol.) "camarón grande"
(SD) chakal-in

(SD) chakaltia (t.v.)  		alegrar el fuego, apurar el fuego, encender-lo más (atizar)
		to stoke, to build up the fire
		chakaltia (pres.)
		chakaltih (pret.)
		chakaltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) chakal-in "shrimp", -tia 'caus.'

(C) chakanaltituk (adj.) 	brasas regadas
		coals spread out so fire will burn better or will light 

(C)  cha:kwahtsin   		alzadero (lugar donde  guardan  cosas),  gancho (alzadero)
		place where things are stored, storage hook
		chahcha:kwahtsin (pl.)
		cf. -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) chakwate  			chacuate (saltamonte, chapulin)
		grasshopper sp. (eats bean plants)
		Sp. chacuate (a Spanish loan originally borrowed from Pipil into Spanish and then 			borrowed a new into Pipil from Spanish); cf. -kwa "to eat"

(C) chalchulu-t  		guayabillo
		small guava sp.
		cf. (?) cha:luku-t "guava"

(C) chalua (t.v.)  		golpear, pegar 
		to hit, to beat
		chalua (pres.)
		chaluh (pret.)
		chaluh-tuk (perf.) ni-k-chaluh-tuk "I've hit him" 
		cf. ta-chalua "to be hitting (something)"
		CN cf. chaloa (Sim.) "reganar a un inocente delante del culpable"
(SD) chalua

(C) cha:luku-t  		guayaba
		guava
		-cha:luku (poss.)
		chahcha:lukut (pl.)
		cf. perhaps related to uku-t "pine" (?); cf. chalchulu-t "small guava sp." (guayabillo)
(SD) cha:luku-t

(SD) -cha:mahka  		cintura, gruesura
		waist
		nu-cha:mahka "my waist"
		cf. cha:ma:wak "thick"
		CN cf. chamactik, chamauac (Sim.) "grosero, grande"

(SD) chamarru  		tortuga del mar
		sea turtle
		Sp. chamarro (?)

(SD) cha:ma:wak  		grueso
		thick
		CN chamauac (Mol.) "grueso, grande"

(C) champe:ris, champeris     güisamper, huisamper (bejuco como el güisquil (chayote))
		a vine, like chayote with round seed that are eaten
		Sp. (?)

(C) champinu:l   		champinol, pinol con dulce
		a sweet pinole, powdered, in a small tub
		CN cf. chianpinolli (Sim.) "especie de bebida"
		cf. chan "chíya", pinu:l "pinole"

(C) chan 			chan, chía (semillas muy chiquitas para fresco) 
		amaranth (?), very small seeds used for a drink
		CN chia, chian, chiyan (Sim.) "chía"; chi(y)am- in compounds, e.g. chiam-atl (Sim.) 			"aceite de chía"

(C) -chan  			casa, hogar
		house, home
		-chan (poss.) nu-chan "my house"
		chan "at (someone's house)" ((a) donde; a la casa de) 
		CN cha:ntli (Car.); PN *cha:n-
(SD) -chan

(C) -chan, tu-chan  		pueblo
		town, village
		tu-chan "the town" (literally "our house(s)")
		nu-chan "my town"
		cf. (SD) te:-chan "town"

(SD) chankwita(-)t   		chancaca, dulce de maiz
		a sweet powder made of an ear of corn called "joco" which has very  small white 				kernels, powdered and eaten with  sugar and cinnamon; some call it "tiste"
		-chankwitat (poss.)
		cf. chan "chan, chía" (amaranth ?), kwita-t "excrement"
		CN cf. chiancaca (Sim.) "mazapan de la tierra"

(SD) -chanta:ka-w   			amigo, persona del mismo pueblo, coterraneo 
		friends, persons from the same town
		nu-chanta:ka-w "my friend, my co-resident of the town"
		cf. (te:-)chan "town", ta:ka-t "man"

(C) chapachin 				bajito
		short
		chahchapachin (pl.)
		-tsin 'diminutive'
		cf. (C) tsapatsin

(C) cha:pah  				cera, chapa  (juego de cera) 
		wax, a game played with wax
		(also, for example, ni-m-a:wiltia sah-ti "to play chapa" is said; cf. sah-ti "wax")
		Sp. chapa

(SD) chaparroh    			chaparro (bajo; una bebida fuerte de maiz)
		short; a strong corn drink
		Sp. chaparro

(SD) chapin  				Guatemala, guatemalteco
		Guatemala, Guatemalan
		chapines (pl.)
		Sp. chapin "Guatemala" (from chapin "sandal" (?))

(C) chapul-ehtapal  			chapulaltapa, chapulejtapa (árbol, medicinal) 
		tree sp., medicinal, literally "grasshopper-wing tree"
		cf. chapul-in "grasshopper", -ehtapal "wing"

(C) chapul-in  				chapulín
		grasshopper sp., locust
		chahchapulin (pl.)
		CN chapolin (Sim.) "saltamontes"
(SD) chapul-in

(SD) charkuh   			chaguite, chahuite, charco
		puddle
		Sp. charco

(SD) chawiti, chawite   		chaguite, chahuite, charco
		wet ground with water and fine mud; puddles, swampy ground
		Sp. chaguite, originally Pipil, borrowed into Spanish and later reborrowed back into 			Pipil
(C) -chaw-i-w  		"segundo cuñado" (así se llama el segundo marido de una 						mujer que vuelve a casarse despues de la muerte de su primer 					marido)
		“second brother-in-law” (said of the second husband if a woman remarries after the  			death of her first husband)
		nu-chaw-pi-w "mi segundo cuñado" ("my second brother-in-law"(?))

(C) chaya:wa  			extender, tender, regar 
		to spread out, to extend, to scatter
		chaya:wa (pres.) ni-k-chaya:h-a "I already extended  it,  I already scattered it"
		chaya:h (pret.)
		chaya:h-tuk (perf.)
		CN chaya:wa  (Car.) "esparcir, derramar"; chayaua (Sim.) "esparcir, sembrar"
(SD) chaya:wa
		chaya:w, chaya:w-ki (pret.)
		chaya:w-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-chaya:wa "to be spreading (something)"

(SD)  cha:yuh  		chayo (planta como el güisquil (chayote), pero más peludo, 						más espinudo, más feo)
		a chayote-like plant, but thornier and uglier
		CN chayotli (Sim.) "chayote"

(SD) chayuntia (t.v., r.v.)  	mecer, columpiar
		to swing, to rock
		chayuntia (pres.) ni-k-chayuntia "I'm swinging it",  
		mu-chayuntia "it's swinging"      
		chayuntih (pret.)
		chayuntih-tuk (perf.)

(C) che:cheke  		cheje (pájaro como el pájaro carpintero) 
		bird sp., like a woodpecker
		chehchekemet, chehche:cheke (pl.)
		cf. (SD) chehe

(SD) chehe  			cheje (pájaro como el pájaro carpintero) (cheheʔ) 
		bird sp., like a woodpecker
		Sp. cheje
		cf. (C) che:cheke

(SD) chibos  			chivos, dados
		dice
		Sp. chivos (cf. chivear "to play dice")

(C) chi:chi (t.v.)  		mamar
		to nurse, to suck
		chi:chi (pres.) ki-chi:chi "she sucks it" (gichi:chiʔ) 
		chi:chi-k (pret.)
		chi:chi-tuk (perf.)
		CN chichi (Sim.)
(SD) chi:chi: (t.v., i.v.)
		chi:chi:-k (pres.) ni-chi:chi: "I'm nursing", ni-k-chi:chi: "I'm sucking it"
		chi:chi:-k (pret.)
		chi:chi:-tuk (perf.)

(C) -chi:chih  			chichi, seno, teta 
		breast, teat
		i-chi:chih "its teat, her breast" i-chi:chih wa:kax "cow's teat" 
		i-chihchi:chih (pl.)
		cf. (SD) -chichi:wal

(C) chichik  			amargo
		bitter
		chihchichik (pl.)
		CN chichic (Sim.)
(SD) chichik  	amargo, fuerte (de chile) 
		bitter, strong (sharp, of chilipepper)

(C) -chichi:ka  		hiel
		bile, gall
		i-chichi:ka "his bile" (ichichi:gaʔ) 
		cf. chichik "bitter"
		CN chichicatl (Sim.)
(SD) -chichika
		nu-chichika "my bile, gall"

(SD) chichikakaw  		mirasol, girasol
		sunflower
		cf. (?) chichik "bitter", a:ka-t "reed, cane"

(C) chichiktiya (i.v.)  		amargarse
		to become bitter, to grow bitter, to get bitter 
		chichiktiya (pres.)
		chichiktiya-k (pret.)
		chichiktiya-tuk (pret.)
		cf. chichik "bitter", -ya 'inchoative'
		CN cf. chichilia (Sim.)

(SD) chichi:lnah  		coloradoso, color achiotado, rojizo 
		reddish
		cf. chi:l- 'red', -nah 'adj.'
(C) chi:chi:ltia (t.v., redup.)  		rojear, hacer rojo 
		to redden, to make red
		chi:chi:ltia (pres.)
		chi:chi:ltih (pret.)
		chi:chi:ltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. chi:l-tik "red"
		CN chichiltia (Sim.) "enrojecerse, volverse rojo"
		cf. (SD) chihchi:ltia

(C)  chi:chi:ltiya  (i.v.,   redup.)   	enrojecerse,  acoloradearse, ponerse colorado
		to redden, to turn red
		chi:chi:ltiya (pres.)
		chi:chi:ltih (pret.)
		chi:chi:ltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. chi:l-tik "rojo", -ya 'inchoative'
		CN chichiltia (Sim.) "enrojecerse, volverse rojo"

(C) chichina (t.v.)  			chupar, fumar
		to suck, to smoke
		chichina (pres.)
		chichin (pret.) ni-k-chichin-ki-ya "I already smoked it" 
		chichin-tuk
		CN chichina (SD) "chupar"
(SD) chichina
		chichin-ki (pret.)
		cf. ta-chichina "to be smoking (something)"

(C) chichinaka (i.v.(?))  		arder (p.ej. quemadura)
		to burn, to smart
		chichinaka (pres.)
		chichinaka-k (pret.) (?) 
		chichinaka-tuk (perf.) (?) 
		cf. chichinua "to singe" 
		CN chichinaca (Sim.) "sufrir, sentir dolor, pena, picar (llaga)"; chichinaca (Car.) 				"tener dolor"

(C) chichinua (t.v.)  			chamuscar, quemar
		to singe, to burn
		chichinua (pres.)
		chichinuh (pret.) nech-chichinuh "it burned me"
		chichinuh-tuk (perf.)
		CN chichinoa (Sim.) "quemar"; chichinoa (UC) "chamuscar, quemar"      
(SD) chichinua

(C) chi:chiwah, chi:chiwal  		morro, guacal, calabaza (de árbol)
		gourd
		cf. chi:chih (?) "breast, teat"
		CN cf. chichiwalli (Mol.) "teta"

(SD) chichiwah  			chichiguas (planta para adorno)
		plant sp., used for decoration, large leaves, with orange, 
		bitter, breast-shaped fruit
		chihchichiwah (pl.)
		CN cf. chichiualli (Mol.) "teta"

(C) chi:chi:wal  			mujer que da de mamar a un niño ajeno, mujer que da 						cría a otro, ama de leche (nodriza)
		wet nurse
		chihchi:chi:wal (pl.)
		cf. chi:chi "to nurse"
		CN cf. chichiualli (Sim.) "seno, mama"; (Mol.) "teta"

(SD) -chichi:wal  			chichi, seno, teta
		breast, teat
		nu-chichi:wal "my breast(s)
		CN chichiualli (Mol.) "teta:
		cf. (C) -chi:chi

(SD) chichi:wal  			pacha, biberón
		baby bottle
		-chichi:wal (poss.)
		cf. -chichi:wal  "breast"

(C) chi:chiwal, chi:chiwah  		morro, guacal 
		gourd
		cf. chi:chi (?) "breast"
		CN cf. (?) chichiualli (mol.) "teta"

(C) chichiya (i.v.)  			amargarse
		to become bitter)
		chichiya (pres.)
		chichiya-k (pret.)
		chichiya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. chichi-k "bitter", -ya 'inchoative'
		CN chichiya (UC) "acedarse", chichia (Sim.) "hacer que una cosa se vuelva amarga, 			agria"
(SD) chichiya

(C) chihcha (t.v.)  			escupir
		to spit
		chihcha (pres.)
		chihcha-k (pret.)
		chihcha-tuk (perf.) ni-k-chihcha-tuk "I have spit it"
		cf. ta-chihcha "to spit (something), to be spitting" 
(SD) chihcha

(SD) chihchal  			saliva
		saliva, spittle
		-chihchal (poss.)
		cf. chihcha "to spit", -l 'passive nominalization'
		CN cf. chichitl (Mol.); PN *chihchV-
		cf. (C) tachichal

(C) chihchikilua (t.v.)  		hacer cosquillas 
		to tickle	
		chihchikilua (pres.)
		chihchikiluh (pret.)
		chihchikiluh-tuk (perf.) ni-k-chihchikiluh-tuk "I have tickled her" 
		CN cf. chichiqui (SD) "rascar, frotar"
(SD) chihchikilua

(SD) chihchi:lihtuk (adj.)   		acoloradeando, empezando a madurar
		beginning to ripen, redden
		cf. chi:l- 'red', -tuk 'perf.'

(SD) chihchi:l-meka-t  		barbasco (para matar pescados) 
		fish poison
		cf. chi:l- 'red', meka-t "vine"

(SD) chihchi:ltia (t.v., redup.)  	acoloradear, hacer rojo 
		to color red, to redden
		chihchi:ltia (pres.)
		chihchi:ltih (pret.)
		chihchi:ltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. chi:l-tik "red"
		cf. (C) chi:chi:ltia

(SD) chihchi:ltiya  (i.v., redup.)     	enrojecerse, acoloradearse 
		to redden, turn red
		chihchi:ltiya (pres.)
		chihchi:ltiya-k (pret.)
		chihchi:ltiya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. chi:l-tik "red", chi:ltiya "to redden" 
		CN chi:chi:ltiya (UC) "pararse bermejo" 
		cf. (C) chi:chi:ltiya

(SD) chihchimi (t.v.)  			tentar, tocar
		to touch, feel
		chihchimi (pres.)
		chihchin(-ki) (pret.) ni-k-chihchin-ki "I touched it"
		chihchin-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-chihchimi "to be touching, feeling (something)"

(SD) chihchipi:ntsin    		chichipince, tomatillo (arbusto)
		bush sp., with red-orange flowers, small tree-like bush cf. 
		(C) xihxipi:ntsin

(SD) chihlar, -chiwa  			chiflar, silvar
		to whistle
		Sp. chiflar

(C) chikahtuk (adj.)  			sazón
		ripe, mature
		cf. chika:waya "to ripen (sazonarse)", -tuk 'perf.'
		CN chicauac, chicactic (Sim.) "firme, fuerte, viejo, solido"   

(C) chika:waya  			sazonarse
		to ripen to mature
		chika:waya (pres.)
		chika:waya-k (pret.)
		chika:waya-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. chika:wa (Car.) "toman  fuerzas", chicaua (Sim.) "envejecer, adquirir fuerza"

(SD) chikirín  				chiquirín, camarón de mar
		cicada (?), sea shrimp (?)
		Sp. chiquirín

(SD) chikitik  				pequeño, chiquito (chigitik) 
		small, little
		cf. perhaps Sp. chiquito, -tik 'adj.'

(C) chikiwi-t  				canasta
		basket
		-chikiw (poss.) nu-chikiw "my basket" 
		chihchikiwit (pl.)
		CN chikiwitl (Car.)
(SD) chikiwi-t

(SD) chikle  				chicle 
		gum, chicle 
		Sp. chicle

(C) chikutsapu-t  			chicozapote
		sapodilla, chicozapote (a tropical fruit, its tree)
		cf. tsapu-t "zapote"
		CN chictzapotl  (Sim.); cf. chico- (Sim.) "mal, irregular"

(C) chikwasi:n  			seis 
		six
		CN chiquace (Sim.), chiquace(m)-  (Car.); PN *chikwase:m
(SD) chikwasin
		cf. (Nahuizalco) chikwasen
		(Izalco) xukwasin
		(Jicalapa) chikwasin

(C) chi:l  				chile
		chili, chilipepper
		-chi:l (poss.)
		chihchi:l (pl.)
		nuhnu-chi:l "my chilis" (pl. poss.) 
		CN chi(:)lli (Car.); PN *chi:l-
(SD) chi:l

(C) chi:lalahka  			salsa (picante)
		hot sauce
		cf. chi:l "chile, (?) al(a:w)ak "smooth"

(C) chil-a:ma-t  			chilamate (árbol, pariente del amate)
		tree sp., related to amate (fig sp.) tree, big, much milky sap
		chihchila:mat (pl.)
		cf. chi:l "chili", a:ma-t "amate" tree

(C) chi:la-t  				chilate (bebida de maís tostada)
		a toasted-corn drink
		-chi:la-w (poss.)
		cf. chi:l "chili". a:-t "water"      
(SD chi:la-t

(C) chil-ayuh    			chilayote, conserva de ayote, dulce de ayote (calabaza)
		pumpkin candy, cooked in honey
		cf. chi:l "chile", ayuh "ayote"

(C) chi:l-etsa-t 			chilasate (avispa, amarilla, pica fuerte)
		wasp sp., yellow, sting hurts intensely
		chihchi:letsat (pl.)
		cf. chi:l "chili", 'red', etsa-t "wasp"
		cf. (SD) etsat

(C) chi:lmul  				chilmol, chirmol (una salsa)
		a kind of sauce made of tomatos, parsley, etc.
		cf. chi:l "chili"
		CN chilmolli (Sim.) "salso o guiso de pimiento" 
(SD) chi:lmo:l

(SD) chi:lta  				cordoncillo (arbusto o vara con nudos como el bambu)
		a bush or cane with sections like bamboo, which has many small branches like strings 		cf. (?) chi:l "chili", 'red'

(C) chi:ltata (i.v.)  			arder (parte del cuerpo) 
		to burn, to smart
		chi:ltata (pres.)
		chi:ltata-k (pret.)
		chi:ltata-tuk (perf.)
		cf. chi:l "chili", tata "to burn"
(SD) chi:ltata (i.v.)

(SD) chi:ltata (n.)  			ardor
		ardor, smarting, burning
		-chi:ltata (poss.) nu-chi:ltata "my burning"
		chihchi:ltata (pl.)
		cf. chi:ltata "to burn, to smart"

(C) chi:ltekpin   			chiltepe, chilpepe, chilepulga, chiltepi, chile de pájaro 
		chili sp., small, round, red chili, very hot
		-chi:ltekpin (poss.)
		chihchi:ltekpin (pl.)
		cf. chi:l "chili", tekpin "flea"
		CN chiltecpin (Sim.) "pimiento extremadamente picante"
(SD) chi:ltekpin

(C) chi:ltik  				rojo, colorado
		red
		chihchi:ltik (pl.)
		cf. chi:l "chili; chi:l- 'red' in compounds, -tik 'adj.'
		CN chichiltic (Mol.)
(SD) chi:ltik

(SD) chi:ltik-e:-t  			frijol colorado (chi:ltigé:t), (chi:ltíge:t) 
		red bean 

(C) chi:ltik kamuh  			camote
		sweet potato
		chihchi:ltik kamuh (pl.)
		cf. chi:l-tik "red", kamuh "manioc" 
		(SD) chi:ltik kamuh

(C) chi:ltik-u:wa-t  			caña colorada
		red cane (cane sp.)
		cf. chi:l-tik "red", u:wa-t "cane"

(SD) chi:ltiya  				enrojecerse, encoloradearse
		to become red, to redden
		chi:ltiya (pres.)
		chi:ltiya-k (pret.)
		chi:ltiya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. chi:l- 'red'

(C) chi:l-tuka-t  			casampulga (una arana venenosa)
		spider sp., said to be poisonous, red-orange and black 
		chihchi:ltukat (pl.)
		cf. chi:l "chili", 'red', tuka-t "spider"

(SD) chi:ltuma-t  			chiltomate 
		chili sp., small, red
		cf. chi:l "chili", tuma-t "tomato"

(C) chi:ltutituh  			chiltota (pájaro)
		bird sp., (oriole ?) yellow breast, grey back, the size of a sinsontle (mocking bird), its 			nest is a large sack  
		Sp. chiltotito (probably originally borrowed into Spanish and then later back into 				Pipil)
		cf. (SD) chi:ltu:tut

(SD) chi:l-tu:tu-t  			chiltota (pájaro)
		bird sp. (oriole ?), yellow breast, grey back
		cf. chi:l 'red', tu:tu-t "bird"
		CN chiltototl (Mol.) "pajaro de pluma colorada"

(C) chi(:)ltyupan  			Chilteopán (nombre de un pueblo)
		Chilteopán (town name)
		cf. chi:l "chili", 'red', tyupan "church"
(SD) chi(:)ltyupan

(SD) chi:l-tsupe:lek  			childulce, chile verde, chile de arroz
		chili sp., "sweet" chili, not hot, green
		cf. chi:l "chili, tsupe:lek "sweet"

(SD) chi(:)lwaku, chilwako   		chilguaco, chilguaque, chile piriguela (chile ciruela)   						(un chile seco, muy picoso) (chi(:)lwakuʔ), 							(chilwakoʔ)
		chili sp., dry, very hot
		Sp. chilguaco       

(C) -chi:mal  				hocico
		snout
		i-chi:mal kuyamet "pig's snout"
		CN cf. chi:malli (Car.) "escudo, rodela"

(C) chimicha:ka-t  			chimichaco, quimilila (varita, carrizo hueco)
		a hollow reed sp.
		cf., chimicha:katal "chimichacos, place of chimichacos"
		cf. a:ka-t "reed"

(C) chimicha:katal  			place of chimichacos
		stand of chimichacos (hollow reed sp.)
		cf. chimicha:ka-t "chimichaco", -ta(:)l 'place of'

(C) chimpe  				chimpe, chimpito, "seca-leche", el niño de los cordones 						(el último hijo)
		the last or youngest child
(SD) chi:mpe

(C) chimpituh  			chimpito
		last or youngest child ('diminutive')
		Sp. chimpito

(C) chi:na:mi-t  			pueblo (el pueblo y su gente)
		town, town's people
		CN chinamitl (Sim.) "separación, cerca de cañas, barrio, suburbio      

(C) chi:nchin  				chinche 
		begbug (?) (hard-shelled bug that sucks blood)
		CN chinche (Sim.)
(SD) chi:nchi(:)n  chinche, chinchín

(C) chintu  				cientopie, cienpie
		chihchintu (pl.)
		Sp. (?) ciento(pie)

(SD) chipaknah  			algo claro 
		somewhat clear
		cf. chip(a:w)ak "clear"; -nah 'adj.'

(C) chipa:wak  			claro, blanco
		clear, white
		cf. chipaknah "somewhat clear", ta-chipaktuk "it's clear"
		CN chipa:wak (Car.), chipauac (Sim.) "limpio, claro, bonito, gentil"; PN *chipa:wak
(SD) chipa:wak  	claro, descolorido, cosa blanquesca
		clear, whitish, faded

(SD) chipin  				mezquino, verruga
		wart
		-chipin (poss.)
		chihchipin (pl.)
		cf. (?) chipi:ni "to drip" 

(C) chipi:ni (i.v.)  			gotear
		to drip, leak
		chipi:ni (pres.)
		chipi:ni-k (pret.)
		chipi:n-tuk (perf.)
		CN chipi:ni (Car.) "gotear"
(SD) chipi:ni
		chipi:n-ki (pret.)

(C) chipu:s   				chipuste, chipote, chibola inflamación, hinchazón, 							terrón, bola; bolillos de la marimba; pene)
		bump, lump, clod, ball, marimba sticks, penis 
(SD) chipusti
		cf. perhaps influenced by Sp. chipuste

(SD) chirah   				chira, llaga
		sore, wound
		-chirah-yu (poss.)
		Sp. chira

(SD) chispiár, -chiwa  		chispetear, chispear 
		to spark
		Sp. chispear

(SD) chito, chitu  			beso, bechito
		kiss, little kiss 
		Sp. bechito

(C) chiwa (t.v.)  			hacer 
		to do, to make 
		chiwa (pres.) 
		chih-ki (pret.) ni-k-chih-ki-ya "I already did it" 
		chih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mu-chiwa "to grow"
		CN chi:wa (Car.); PN *chi:wa
(SD) chiwa
		chiw-ki (pret.) (sometimes chih-ki, or chih)
		chiw-tuk (perf.)

(C) mu-chiwa (r.v.)  			crecer
		to grow
		mu-chiwa (pres.)
		mu-chih-ki (pret.)
		mu-chih-tuk (perf.) ni-mu-chih-tuk "I have grown"
		cf. chiwa "to do, make"

(SD)  chiwaw  			¡niña!  (término para hablar a una niña de ocho años en 						adelante
		term of address for girls eight years old and older
		cf. (?) siwa:-w "women" (with -w 'poss.')

(C) chi:wix  				hamaca para niños
		hammock for children
		-chi:wix (poss.)

(C) chi:wixtsin  			chichigüite, chichihuite, chichigüitera (pájaro) 
		bird sp., dark grey, robbin-sized
		cf. chi:wix "children's hammock", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) chiya (t.v.)   			mirar, esperar
		to look at, to wait for
		chiya (pres.) ni-k-chiya "I looked at it, I waited for her"
		-chix-ki (pret.)
		-chix-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-chiya "to look, wait for (something)", tahta-chiya "to look a lot" 
		CN chiya (Car.) "mirrar, guardar"; chi(y)a (Sim.) "esperar"; PN *chiya
(SD) chiya
		chiya-k (pret.) -cha-k-a (pret. + -a 'already') 
		ni-k-cha-k-a "I already waited for him" (nikchagaʔ) 
		chiya-tuk (perf.)

(SD) choka, choko   			choca, choco
		blind in one eye, one-eyed
		Sp. choca, choco

(SD) chorcha(h)  			cresta
		crest (bird's)
		Sp. chorcha

(SD) choriso(h)  			chorizo
		sausage
		Sp. chorizo

(SD) chuhchupika  			poco a poco, poquito a poquito
		slowly (?), little by little, a little at a time 
		cf. chupi "little, a little"

(C) chuhchu:wits  			palo de cabra, pie de cabra
		tree sp. (?), "goat's-foot" tree
		cf. wits-ti "thorn"

(C) chuhchu:witstal  			palos de cabra, lugar de palos de cabra
		stand of "goat's-foot" trees
		cf. chuhchu:wits "goat's-foot" tree, -ta(:)l 'place of'

(C)  chuhle    			chufle (un monte (planta del  campo) como bijagua, verdura  					que nace en el invierno en las orillas del rio o en las quebradas, 					se come en sopa)
		a wild plant, like a vine, which grows in winter at the edge of the river or in the 				gulleys, eaten in soup 
		Sp. chufle
(SD) chuhleh  chufle

(C) chu:ka (i.v.)  		llorar
		to cry
		chu:ka (pres.) ni-chu:ka "I'm crying" (nichu:gaʔ)
		chu:ka-k (pret.)
		chu:ka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. chu:ktia "to make (someone) cry"
		CN cho:ka (Car.) "llorar, bramar"; PN *cho:ka 
(SD) chu:ka (i.v.)  	llorar, piar
		to cry, to peep
		cf. chu:kaltia "hacer llorar"   

(SD) chu:kaltia (t.v.)  		hacer llorar
		to make cry
		chu:kaltia (pres.)
		chu:kaltih (pret.)
		chu:kaltih-tuk (perf.)
		CN cho:kaltia (Car.), choktia (Car.), chocaltia (Sim.) "hacer llorar a alguien", choctia 			(Sim.) "hacer llorar a alguien"
		cf. (C) chu:ktia

(SD) chukaro(h)  		chucaro, simarrón, arisco (de animal doméstico) wild, 			untamed, angry (of domesticated animals)
		Sp. chúcaro

(C) chu:ktia (t.v.)  		hacer llorar
		to make cry
		chu:ktia (pres.)
		chu:ktih (pret.)
		chu:ktih-tuk (perf.)
		CN cho:kaltia (Car.), choktia (Car.) 
		CN (Sim.) chu:kaltia

(C) chukula-t  			chocolate
		chocolate
		-chukula-w (poss.)  nu-chukula-w "my chocolate"
		CN chocolatl (Sim.) "alimento hecho con almendras de cacao y semillas del árbol 				llamado pochotl en partes iguales"
(SD) chukula-t

(C)  chu:leh   			"hijo", "nieto" (término para hablar a un niño de cinco años en 					adelante)
		term of address for boys five years old and above
		xi-wa:lah chu:leh  "come here, boy!"
		cf. xu:leh, xu:re:t "old man"

(C)  chu:leh  			"joven" (un saludo o término para hablar a un niño de doce 						años en adelante)
		greeting or term of address for boys twelve years old and above

(SD) chu:le-t, chu:le-t  	viejo, viejito
		old man
		-chu:let (poss.) nu-chu:let "my old man (husband)" 
		chuhchu:letket (pl.)
		cf. xu:leh- "husband", xu:re-t "old man"

(SD) chu:lu  			anona colorada
		red annona, red custard apple
		-chu:lu (poss.)
		chuhchu:lu (pl.)

(C) chu:lua (i.v.) 		huir, desertar
		to flee, to desert
		chu:lua (pres.) ni-chu:lua "I flee"
		chu:luh (pret.)
		chu:luh-tuk (perf.)
		CN cho(:)loa (Car.)
(SD) chu:lua

(SD) chumelah    		chumela, chumelo (abeja negra que da miel)
		a small, black honey-bee
		Sp. chumela
		cf. (C) chu:me:luh 
(C) chu:me:luh    			chumelo, chumela (colmenita, abejita negra que da miel
		a small, black honey-bee
		Sp. chumelo
		cf. (SD) chumelah

(SD) chumpah  			abrigo, chumpa, chaqueta
		coat, jacket
		Sp. chumpa (ultimately from English jumper)

(SD) chumpi  				chompipe, jolote, guajolote (pavo)
		turkey
		chuhchumpi (pl.)
		cf. chumpi:pi

(C) chumpi:pi  			chompipe, jolote, guajolote (pavo) (chumpi:piʔ) 			turkey
(SD) chumpi:pi
		cf. also chumpi "turkey"

(C) chunkwahkwa (t.v.)  		masticar
		to chew
		chunkwahkwa (pres.)
		chunkwahkwa-k (pret.) ni-k-chunkwahkwa-k-a "I already  chewed it"
		chunkwahkwa-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwa "to eat"
		cf. (SD) chahchankwa "to chew"

(SD)  chuntal   			cochino, persona sucia (persona que tienta  suciedades, 						término de abuso)
		"pig", dirty person, term of abuse
		CN cf. chontalli (Mol.) "extranjero o forastero"
	
(C) chupi  				un poco 
		a little  
		(SD) chupi  poquito, un poco
		a little, a little bit
		chuhchupi "pocos" (few)
		chupi chupi "poco por poco" (little by little (?)) 
		chupi-san "ya es poco" (there's just a little now (?)) 
		chupi-chin "poquito" (a little bit)
	
(SD) chu:spah  			chuspa, bolsa de cuero, valijita 
		leather bag
		Sp. chuspa (ultimately from Quechua ch'uspa)

(SD)  chu:suh   			chuzo  (palo para sembrar que tiene un pedazo de 							machete en su punta, "para dar chuzos a la tierra")
		planting stick with a piece of machete at its point
		Sp. chuzo

D

(SD) danyu(h), -chiwa   		hechizar
		to bewitch, to hex
		Sp. daño "harm"

(C) datka (?) 				algo, 'partículo enfático 
		something, 'emphatic particle' (?)
(SD) datka
	
(SD) debil  				debil, desnutrido
		weak, undernourished

(SD) debosión   			devoción 
		devotion, service 
		Sp. devoción

(SD) delantál  				delantal
		apron
		Sp. delantal

(SD) demóniyu(h)  			demonio 
		devil, demon
		Sp. demonio

(SD) desasér, mu-chiwa  		deshacerse, derretir 
		to melt, to come apart
		Sp. deshacerse

(SD) desayunoh  			desayuno
		breakfast
		Sp. desayuno

(SD) desfriyo  				resfrío 
		a cold
		Sp. resfrío

(SD) desgrasiado(h) (n., adj.)  	desgraciado 
		wretch, unfortunate, contemptible person 
		Sp. desgraciado

(SD) desmayár, mu-chiwa  		desmayarse
		to faint

(SD) di(y)ablo, di(y)ablu(h)   		diablo
		devil
		Sp. diablo

(SD) dilubyo, gilubyo, bilubyo  	diluvio
		flood
		Sp. diluvio

(SD) diós, dios-chín  			santo, imagen
		saint, image
		Sp. dios, cf. -tsin 'diminutive'

(SD) dios-se-lo-page  			gracias, Dios se lo pague 
		(thanks) 
		Sp. Dios se lo pague

(SD) diputada, dipotada  		capitana de la cofradía 
		female official in the confraternity
		Sp. diputada

(SD) di:yah  				día 
		day
		Sp. día

(SD) doktor  				doctor 
		doctor
		Sp. doctor

(SD) dominya, -maka  		gobernar
		to govern
		Sp. dominio; cf. maka "to give"

(SD) dotrinera  			catequista
		catechist (female)
		Sp. doctrinera

(SD) durasnu(h)  			durazno
		peach
		Sp. durazno

(SD) duru(h)  				recio, duro
		loud, hard, intense
		Sp. duro

(SD) dwende, duwende(h)  		"el duende" (ser sobrenatural)
		"The Dwarf", "goblin" (a supernatural being) 
		Sp. duende

E

(SD) edukár, -chiwa  		educar, aconsejar
		to educate, to raise, to counsel
		Sp. educar

(C) e:he  			si
		yes
		CN cf. yye (Mol.)

(C) eheka-t  			norte, aire, viento
		wind
		CN eʔe:katl (Car.)
(SD) eheka-t

(C) ehekua (t.v.,  redup. (?))	ejercitar, hacer las cachas, hacer todo posible
		to exert effort, to do all possible, to go all out
		ehekua (pres.) ni-k-ehekua  "I'm trying it as hard as possible" (nigehekuwaʔ)
		ehekuh (pret.)
		ehekuh-tuk (perf.)
		xi-k-eheku "give it all you got!"
		CN ye(ʔ)ye(ʔ)koa (Car.) "probar", yecoa (Sim.) "probar  la comida, experimentar 			una cosa, combatir"
(SD) ehekua (t.v.)  	probar (comida)
		to taste, to try (food)
		xi-k-eheku "try it!" xigeheguʔ)
		cf. ta-ehekua "to taste (something)"

(SD) ehemplo(h), ihemplo(h)  	ejemplo 
		example
		Sp. ejemplo

(C) ehku (i.v.)  llegar
		to arrive
		ehku (pres.)
		ehku-k (pret.)
		ehku-tuk (perf.) ni-ehku-tuk "I have arrived" 
		CN eʔko (Car.)
(SD) ehku

(C) ehkuni  				ladino, extranjero
		ladino, foreigner
		ehkuni-met (pl.)
		cf. ehku "to arrive", -ni 'agent'
(SD) -ehpul  				cuñado de mujer
		woman's brother-in-law
		-ehpul (poss.) nu-ehpul "my brother-in-law" 
		-ehehpul (pl.)
		CN cf. yepulli (Mol.) "cunada de hombre"
		cf. (C) -wehpul "brother-in-law"

(C) -ehtapal  				ala, aleta
		wing, fin
		i-ehtapal "its wing"
		i-ehehtapal "its wings, its fins" 
		CN cf. atlapalli (Mol.)
(SD) -ehtapal
		i-ehtapal michin "fish's fin"

(SD) eihadah, aihadah 		 ahijada
		goddaughter
		Sp. ahijada

(SD) eihaduh, aihaduh  		ahijado
		godson
		Sp. ahijado

(SD) e:ku(w)a  			aguantar (como p.ej. cargas)
		to withstand, to hold up, to be able to
		e:kuwa (pres.)
		e:kuh (pret.) ni-k-e:kuh "I could withstand (carrying)  it" (nige:guh)
		e:kuhtuk (perf.)
		CN yecoa (Sim.) "poder sufrir (a alguien)"

(C,SD) el- 				'(a)dentro' (prefijo)
		'inside', 'internal' (prefix)a

(C) -elixku  				estómago
		stomach
		nu-elixku "my stomach"
		cf. el- 'inside', ixku "sign"
(SD) -elixku
		i-elixku "his stomach" (iyelixkuʔ)

(C) elka:wa (t.v.)  			olvidar(se)
		to forget
		elka:wa (pres.)
		elka:h (pret.) ni-k-elka:h "I forgot it"
		elka:h-tuk (perf.) 
		cf. el- 'inside, internal', ka(:)wa "to leave, abandon"
		CN (i)lka:wa (Car.)
(SD) elka(:)wa
		elka(:)w (pret.) k-elka(:)w-ke-t "they forgot it" (gelkawget) 
		elka(:)w-tuk (perf.)

(C) elkuhku  pechuga
		breast
		cf. el- 'inside'
		CN cf. elcocoyantli (Sim.) "cavidad del estómago"

(C) el-mu-yawa (r.v.)  		dar asco, querer vomitar (tener nauseas) 
		to have nausea, to be nauseated
		el-mu-yawa (pres.) ni-el-mu-yawa "I'm nauseated"
		el-mu-yah-ki (pret.)
		el-mu-yah-tuk (perf.)
		cf. el- 'inside', mu- 'reflixive', yawa ('to turn')
(SD) el-mu-yawa
		el-mu-yaw-ki (pret.)
		el-mu-yaw-tuk (perf.)

(C) elna:miki (t.v.)  			acordar(se), recordar
		to remember
		elna:miki (pres.) ni-k-el-na:miki "I  remember" (nigelna:migiʔ)
		elna:mik (pret.)
		elna:mik-tuk (perf.)
		cf. el- 'inside', na:miki "to encounter, find, meet" 
		CN (i)lna:miki (Car.)
(SD) elna:miki

(C) -elpan  				pecho
		chest, breast
		i-elpan "his chest, its breast" (of people or animals) 
		nu-elpan "my chest"
		cf. el- 'inside', -pan 'place of'
		CN elpantli (Sim.) "estómago, pecho"
(SD) -elpan  	chiniado, chineado, regazo
		lap, bosom

(C) -elpan -(i)kxi  			plantilla, planta del pie
		sole of foot
		i-elpan (i)ikxi "her sole"
		i-elpan nu-kxi "my sole" 
		i-elpan mu-kxi "your sole" 
		cf. -elpan "chest, lap, (i)kxi "foot"
(SD) -elpan -(i)kxi

(SD) -elpets  				pecho, pechuga (de animal, p.ej. cangrejo, gallina) 			breast of animal
		i-elpets "its chest, breast ((i)yelpets)
		cf. el- 'inside', pets- "nude" (?)

(C) -eltapach  				hígado
		liver
		i-eltapach "its liver"
		nu-eltapach "my liver"
		cf. el- 'inside', tapach "shell"
		CN eltapachtli (Sim.); cf. also tlapachoa (Mol.) "cubrir" 
(SD) -eltapach
		nu-eltapacah "my liver" (nuwełtapach)

(SD) -eltiw, -weltiw  			hermana (menor) de hombre
		man's younger sister
		i-eltiw, i-weltiw "his younger sister"
		nu-eltiw, nu-weltiw "my younger brother"
		CN ueltiuhtli (Sim.) "hermana mayor"; weltiwtli (Car.)

(C) e:lu-saka-t  			zacate (tipo de), zacatón
		grass sp., large
		cf. e:lu-t "roasting ear", saka-t "grass"
(SD) e:lu-saka-t
		-e:lu-saka-w (poss.) nu-e:lu-saka-w "my big grass"

(C) e:lu-t  				elote
		ear of corn, roasting ear
		-e:lu (poss.) nu-e:lu "my ear of corn"
		ehe:lut (pl.)
		CN elotl (Sim.); PN *e:lo-
(SD) e:lu-t
		cf. sesek-e:lu-t "immature ear of corn" (elote tierno)

(SD) embenenar, -chiwa 		hechizar
		to bewitch, to hex
		Sp. envenenar "to poison"

(SD) embídiah, enbídiah, imbidia(h)	envidia
		envy
		Sp. envidia

(SD) empacho(h)  			empacho, indigestión
		indigestion
		Sp. empachao 

(C) e:muhmulu  			frijol muhuto (un frijol seco, cocidos sin sopa) 
		bean sp., dry, cooked without liquid
		cf. e:-t "bean", mulu:ni "to dry, to swell up"
		cf. (SD) muhmulu

(C) enamorado(h)  			enamorado, amante
		lover
		Sp. enamorado

(SD) ensendedór, insendedór   	eslabón
		flint (for starting fires)
		Sp. encendedor

(SD) enemigu(h), enemigo(h)  	enemigo 
		enemy
		Sp. enemigo

(SD) entenada  			hijastra
		stepdaughter
		Sp. entenada

(SD) entenado  			hijastro 
		stepson
		Sp. entenado

(C) e:pasu-t  				epazote 
		plant sp., used to cure worms 
		ehe:pasut (pl.)
		e:pasu-tsín "small epazote" 
		CN epaçotl (Sim.)

(C) eskale:rah  			escala, escalera 
		ladder, step
		cf. (SD) iskalera(h)

(SD) eskina(h)  			esquina
		corner
		Sp. esquina

(C) eski:sa (i.v.)  			sangrar
		to bleed
		eski:sa (pres.)
		eski:s-ki (pret.)
		eski:s-tuk (pret.)
		cf. es-ti "blood", ki:sa "to come out"
		CN cf. ezquica (Sim.) "tener la regla, menstracion" 
(SD) eski:sa
		ni-eski:s-ki "I bled"

(SD) esklabu(h), esklabo(h)  		esclavo
		slave
		Sp. esclavo

(SD) eskobiya(h)  			verbena, escobilla
		plant sp., vervain, like a small palm, used for broom

(SD) eskopetah  			escopeta
		shotgun
		Sp. escopeta

(SD) eskukuh, a:-t eskukuh  		Río Escuco (eskuguh) 
		river name

(SD) eskusado(h)  			escusado
		toitet
		Sp. escusado

(SD) eskwela(h)   			escuela  
		school
		Sp. espejo

(SD) espehu(h)    			espejo
		mirror
		Sp. espejo

(SD) esperár, -chiwa, asperár, -chiwa  	esperar 
		to wait, expect
		esperar

(SD) esponha(h)  			esponja
		sponge
		Sp. esponja

(SD) espumah  			espuma
		foam
		-espumah-yu (poss.)

(SD) estaka(h)  			estaca (estakah) 
		stake               
		Sp. estaca

(C) es-ti  				sangre
		blood
		-es-yu (poss.)  nu-es-yu "my blood"
		CN estli (Car.); PN *es-
(SD) es-ti

(SD) estranhero(h)  			extranjero
		foreigner

(SD) estranhero(h)  			extranjera (abejita chiquita, negra)
		bee sp., small, black
		Sp. extranjera

(SD) mu-estuk (adj., defective i.v.)  	sentado, estar sentado 
		seated, to be seated
		ni-mu-estuk "I am seated" xi-mu-estuk "be seated!" 
		cf. mu- 'reflexive', -tuk 'perf.'
		CN -yes, -yetsti (Car.) irregular form of ca "to be" 
		cf. (C) mu-ets-tuk

(SD) estúpido(h)  			estúpido  
		(stupid)
		Sp. estúpido

(C) e:-t  				frijol
		bean
		-e:-w (poss.) nu-e:-w "my bean" 
		CN e:tl (Car.)
(SD) e:-t 
		ehe:-t (pl.)
		cf. chi:ltik-e:t "frijol colorado (red bean)"  (chiltigé:t), (chiltíge:t)
		istak-e:t "frijol blanco (white bean)" (istagé:t), (istáge:t) 
		sin-e:t "frijol de milpa (cornfield bean)" (síŋe:t]

(C) e:tal  				frijolar
		bean field
		cf. e:-t "bean", -ta(:)l 'place of'

(C) etek  				pesado
		heavy    
		ehetek (pl.)
		CN etik (Car.); PN əti:k 
(SD) etek

(SD) eterno(h)  			eterno
		eternal
		Sp. eterno
(SD) etsa-t  				avispa (una clase de)
		wasp sp.
		cf. (C) chi:letsat

(C) mu-etstuk (adj., defective i.v.)  	sentado, estar sentado 
		seated, to be seated
		mu-etstuk "seated"
		ni-mu-etstuk "I am seated" 
		xi-mu-etstuk "be seated!" 
		CN -yes, -yetsti (Car.), irregular form of ca "to be" 
		cf. mu- 'reflexive', -tuk 'perf.'
		cf. (SD) mu-es-tuk

(C) -e:wayu  				piel, pellejo, cáscara
		skin, peal, hide, bark, shell (of egg) 
		i-e:wayu  "his skin, its bark" 
		nu-e:wayu "my hide, my skin"
		i-e:wayu teksisti "egg shell"
		CN euayotl (Sim.) "piel, cáscara" 
(SD) -ewayu  piel, pellejo, cáscara, cuero 
		skin, peal, bark, hide, leather

(SD) e:xihxi  				ticuco (tamal con frijoles, para semana santa, hervido 						en hoja de huerta (plátano))
		kind of tamale with beans inside,  for Holy Week, cooked in a banana leaf
	
(C) exu-t  				ejote
		string bean, green bean
		-exu (poss.)
		ehexut (pl.)
		CN eʔxo:tl (Car.)
(SD) exu-t

F
	
(SD) familya, hwamilya(h)   		familia
		family
		Sp. familia
	
(SD) fabór, -chiwa fabór 		favor, hacer el favor
		favor, to do a favor
		Sp. favor
	
(SD) fierota  				terrible, horrible
		terrible, horrible, ugly 
		Sp. fiero(ta)
		cf. also  hierota "ugly"
	
(SD) finka   				finca
		farm, ranch
		Sp. finca

(SD) forastero(h), hurastero(h)   	forastero 
		outsider, stranger, foreigner
		Sp. forastero
	
(SD) fustán, hustán   			fustán
		petticoat
		Sp. fustán

G

(SD) ga:hu(h)  			gajo, racimo, espiga
		section, bunch, cluster (of fruit) 
		gahga:hus (pl.)
		Sp. gajo

(C) ga:la:n  				guapo, hermoso, hermosa 
		beautiful, handsome, pretty 
		ga:la:n-tsin "pretty"
		Sp. galan

(SD) galan  				guapo, hermoso, bonito 
		handsome, beautiful, pretty

(SD) galana  				hermosa, bonita 
		beautiful, pretty (of women) 
		Sp. galana
(SD) galgu(h)  			galgo, goloso
		glutton
		Sp. galgo

(SD) gansu(h)  			ganso, gansa
		goose
		Sp. ganso
(C) garantiyah, -piya     		tener cuello, tener palancas (tener influencias)
		ni-k-piya garantiyah "tengo cuello"
		Sp. garantia

(SD) garsa(h)  				garza
		(crane, heron) 
		Sp. garza

(SD) gaspa(h)  			caspa 
		dandruff
		Sp. caspa

(SD) gastuh, -chiwa   			gastar
		to spend
		Sp. gasto

(SD) gerra(h)   			guerra
		war
		Sp. guerra

(SD) gilubyo(h), bilubyo, dilubyo  	diluvio flood
		Sp. diluvio

(C) gita:rrah   				guitarra
		guitar
		Sp. guitarra

(SD) -gonsah   			gonce, nudillo
		finger joint(s)
		Sp. gonce

(SD) gorrión   				gorrión, gorrioncito (colibrí) 
		hummingbird
		Sp. gorrión

(SD) grada(h)   			grada
		step(s)
		Sp. grada, grado

(SD) gradus   				grado(s) 
		steps
		Sp. grados
(SD) granisu(h)   			granizo
		hail
		Sp. granizo

(SD)  gringu  			gringo (Norteamericano o cualquier extranjero de piel clara
		North American, any fair-skinned foreigner
		gri(h)gringu (pl.)
		Sp. gringo

(SD) gulundrina(h)   			golondrina
		swallow
		guhgulundrinas (pl.)
		Sp. golondrina

(C) gulusuh, goloso(h)    		galgo, jambado
		glutton, hungry person
		Sp. goloso

(SD) gwatemala, watemala  		Guatemala
		Guatemala
		Sp. Guatemala

H

(C) ha (conj.)  				que, lo que
		that, who
		yaha ha ki-kwah "he's the one who ate it"

(C) ha:chah  				hacha
		axe
		-ha:chah (poss.)
		Sp. hacha
		cf. (SD) a:chah

(C) hahambaduh  			jambado, galgo 
		glutton, hungry
		Sp. jambado

(C) haika   				por eso
		therefore, for that reason 
		cf. ha "that, who"
		-ik- 'with that' (?), -a "already" (?)
(SD) haranah  				deuda
		debt
		ni-k-piya haranah "I owe" 
		Sp. jarana

(SD) hefe(h)  				jefe
		boss
		Sp. jefe

(SD) henteh  				gente people, 
		human 
		Sp. gente

(SD) hentiyah   			gentío 
		crowd
		Sp. gentio  	

(SD) hetón  				labio leporino 
		harelip
		Sp. jetón (cf. jeta)

(SD) hiebre(h)   			fiebre 
		fever
		Sp. fiebre

(SD) hierota  				feo
		ugly, bad
		cf. also fierota "horrible, terrible" 
		Sp. fiero(ta)

(SD) hiesta(h)  			feria, fiesta
		ceremony, fair, fiesta
		Sp. fiesta

(SD) hlosión, flosión  		jaral flosión (fluxión, inflamación o irritación de los ojos)
		inflamation or irritation of eyes (?)
		Sp. fluxión (?)

(C) hó:sporoh   			fósforo, cerillo
		match
		Sp. fósforo

(SD) hrontera(h)  			frontera 
		border, boundary 
		Sp. frontera

(SD) hu:gu(h)  			jugo 
		juice
		Sp. jugo

(C) hulun  				jícara 
		small gourd bowl 
		huhulún (pl.) 
		Sp. julón

(SD) hunta(h)   			junta, reunión 
		meeting
		Sp. junta

(SD) huntik  				junto a
		near, next to
		Sp. junto, -tik 'adj. suffix'

(SD) hurasteruh, forastero(h)    	extranjero 
		foreigner, stranger, outsider
		Sp. forastero

(SD) husgár, -chiwa    		juzgar 
		to judge, to evaluate 
		Sp. juzgar

(SD) hustán, fustán    			fustán 
		petticoat
		Sp. fustán

(SD) hwabór, fabór    			favor
		favor
		xi-k-chiwa ne hwabór 	"please" ("por favor") 
		Sp. favor

(SD) hwábrika(h)    			sepulco (tumba)
		grave, tomb, sepulcher 
		Sp. fábrica

(SD) hwa:lá  				ojalá
		oh that, I wish, if only 
		Sp. ojalá

(C) hwalta, -chiwa; falta, -chiwa	faltar 
		to be lacking, to fail, to be needed 
		Sp. falta
	
(SD) hwerte(h)  			picante
		hot (spicy)
		Sp. fuerte "strong"
	
(SD) hwilín, filín    			filín (pescado)
		fish sp., small, grey with whiskers, edible 
		Sp. filín

I
	
(C) ichka-t  			algodón
		cotton
		-ichka-w (poss.)  nu-ichka-w "my cotton"
		CN ichcatl (Sim.) "algodón, lana, obeja"; PN *(ɨ)chka-
(SD) ichkak-t
		nu-ichkat "my cotton"

(SD) ichma:lini (i.v., incorp.)  	torcer pita, torcer algodón, hacer pita (hilar) 
		to spin, to make string, thread
		ichma:lini (pres.) n-ichma:lini "I make thread, string" 
		ichma:lin(-ki) (pret.)
		ichma:lin-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ich-ti "string", ma:lina "to twist"
	
(C) ichtaka  				secreto
		secret
		ichtaka-tsin "hidden (escondidito)"
		CN ichtaca (Sim.) "en secreto"; ichtaca (Mol.) "secretamente, o a escondidas"   
(SD) ichtaka (ichtagaʔ)
	
(C) (i)chteki (t.v.)  			robar
		to steal, to rob
		ichteki (pres.)
		ichtek (pret.) k-ichtek "he stole it"
		ichtek-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-chteki "to steal (something), to be stealing" 
		cf. ich-ti "string", teki "to cut"
		CN (i)chteki (Car.)
(SD) ichteki
		ichtek (pret.) k-ichteh-ke-t "they stole it" 
		ni-k-ichtek-a "I already stole it" (nigichtegaʔ) 
		maka xi-k-ichteki "don't steal (it)!"
		cf. t-ichteki "to steal (something), to be robbing"
	
(C) ich-ti  				maguey, pita (mecate, cuerda)
		century plant (agave), string, cord
		-ich (poss.)  nu-ich "my string"
		CN ichtli (Sim.) "hilo (de maguey)" 
(SD) ich-ti
		nu-ich "my string"
		nuhnu-ich "my strings"

(C) ida, ita (t.v., irregular) "to see, look, visit"; see ita
(SD) idioma(h)  			idioma
		language
		Sp. idioma

(SD) iglésiya(h)  			iglesia
		church
		Sp. iglesia

(C) ihchiki (t.v., r.v.)  			estregar, restregar, raspar 
		to scrape, to scrub, to rub, to scratch 
		ihchiki (pres.)
		ihchik  (pret.)  ni-k-ihchik "I scrubbed it",  mu-ihchik  "he scrubbed himself, he 				scraped himself"
		ihchik-tuk (perf.)
		CN (i) ʔchiki (Car.); (i)chiqui (Sim.) "raspar, rascar, frotar"
(SD) ihchiki

(SD) ihemplo(h), ehemplo(h)  	ejemplo
		example
		Sp. ejemplo

(C) ihi:chnah  				guapo (de hombre)
		handsome, good-looking (of men)
		cf. -nah 'adj.'

(C) ihilwia (t.v., redup.)  		ofender, insultar
		to offend, to insult
		ihilwia (pres.) ni-k-ihilwia "I offended him"
		ihilwih (pret.)
		ihilwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ilwia "to say"

(SD) ihisiwi (t.v.)  			apurarse
		to hurry
		ihisiwi (pres.)
		ihisiw-ki (pret.)
		ihisiw-tuk (perf.)
		x-ihisiwi "hurry!"
		cf. ihisiwitia (t.v.) "to hurry"
		CN iʔsiwi (Car.) "darse prisa"

(SD) ihisiwitia (t.v.)  			apurar
		to hurry
		ihisiwitia (pres.) ni-mets-ihisiwitia "I'm hurrying you" 
		ihisiwitih (pret.)
		ihisiwitih-tuk (perf.)
		xi-k-ihisiwiti "hurry him/her/it!" (xigihisiwitiʔ)
		cf. ihisiwi (i.v.) "to hurry", -tia 'caus.'

(C) ihi:x-mistun  			zarco (persona con ojos claros) 
		blue-eyed person
		cf. i:x "eye", mistun "cat"

(C) ihiya (t.v.)  			odiar, envidiar
		to hate, to envy
		ihiya (pres.) ni-k-ihiya "I hate it"
		ihix-ki (pret.)
		ihix-tuk (perf.)
		CN iʔi:ta (Car.) "aborrecer"; iʔiya (UC) "aborrecer"

(C) -ihiyu  				ijiyo (de un muerto), aliento, mal olor
		smell (of a dead person), breath, bad breath
		nu-ihiyu "my breath"
		CN iʔi:yo:tl (Car.) "aliento"; ihi(y)otl (Sim.) "breath", ihi(y)o "espiritual, 					concerniente al aliento" 
(SD) ihiyu  felgo (huelgo), olor, aliento
		breath, bad breath, smell

(C) ihkatuk (adj.)  			parado standing
		n-ihkatuk "I am standing" 
		cf. -tuk (perf.)
		CN iʔka:-k (Car.) "estar de pie"
(SD) ihkatuk

(SD) ihkiti (i.v.)  			tejer
		to weave
		ihkiti (pres.)
		ihkiti-k (pret.)
		ihkiti-tuk (perf.)
		CN iquiti (Sim.), ikiti (UC); PN *ihkVti

(SD) ihkwani (t.v., r.v.)  		quitar, trasladar, apartar
		to remove, to move from one place to another, to transfer, to set aside
		ihkwani (pres.) 
		ihkwan(-ki) (pret.)  m-ihkwan "it moved (away)"
		ihkwan-tuk (perf.)
		xi-k-ihkwani  "remove it!"
		CN iʔkwani (Car.) "apartarse"
		cf. (C) ihwania (t.v.)
(C) ihkwania (t.v.)  			quitar, trasladar, apartar
		to remove, to move from one place to another, to transfer, to set aside
		ihkwania (pres.)
		ihkwanih (pret.)
		ihkwanih-tuk (perf.) ni-k-ihkwanih-tuk "I have set it aside" 
		CN iʔkwania (UC) "mudar,  apartar";  iquania (Sim.) "separar, 
			hacer lugar"
		cf. (SD) ihkwani (i.v.)

(C) ihkwi:ch  				queresa, huevo de mosca (gusanillo de mosca)
		maggot
		ihihkwi:ch (pl.)
		ihkwi:ch tentuk "full of maggots"
(SD) ihkwich  	gusanillo de mosca (queresa), mosca grande (verdeosa) maggot, green fly

(C) (i)hkwilua (t.v.)  			escribir
		to write
		ihkwilua (pres.) ni-k-ihkwilua "I'm writing it"
		ihkwiluh (pret.)
		ihkwiluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-hkwilua "to be writing (something)"
		CN (i) ʔkwiloa (Car.); PN *(ɨ)hkwVlowa

(C) ihnekwi (t.v.)  			oler
		to smell
		ihnekwi (pres.)  ni-k-ihnekwi "I smell it" (nigihnekwiʔ) 
		ihnek (pret.)
		ihnek-tuk (perf.) ni-k-ihnek-tuk "I have smelled it"
		CN (i) ʔnekwi (Car.) "oler"
		cf. (SD) ahnekua

(C) -(i)hpak  				encima de, sobre
		on, on top of, over
		nu-hpak "on me, on top of me" cf. PN *-( ɨ)kpa k
(SD) -(i)hpak
		nu-hpak "on me, on top of me" 
		mu-hpak "on you, on top of you" 
		(y)-ihpak "on him, her, it, on top of him, her, it" 
		tu-hpak "on us, on top of us"

(C) (i)hseki (t.v.)  			tostar
		to toast
		ihseki (pres.) ni-k-ihseki "I'm toasting it" (nigihsegiʔ)
		ihsek (pret.) ti-k-ihseh-ke-t-a "we already toasted it" 
		ihsek-tuk, ihseh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-hseki "to be toasting"
		CN (i)cequi (Sim.) "tostar maíz"
		cf. (SD) i:seki

(C) ihtakawi (i.v.)  			descomponerse
		to break down, to go out of order
		ihtakawi (pres.)
		ihtakawi-k (pret.)
		ihtakaw-tuk (perf.)
		CN  iʔtlakawi (UC) "corromperse, dañarse"; itlacaui (Sim.) "quedar encinta, 				estorbar, deteriorarse, echarse a perder"  
		cf. ihtakua (t.v.) "to take apart, destroy"
(SD) ihtakawi

(C) ihtakua (t.v.)  			desarmar, descomponer, arruinar
		to take apart, to destroy, to ruin
		ihtakua (pres.) ni-k-ihtakua "I'm taking it apart"
		ihtakuh (pret.)
		ihtakuh-tuk (perf.)
		CN (i)tlacoa (Sim.) "caer enfermo por haber abusado del trato carnal con mujeres,  			hacerle dano, destruir, estropear, deteriorar algo"; iʔtlakoa (UC) "estregar, 			dañar"
(SD) ihtakua

(C) ihti  				barriga, ábdomen
		belly, abdomen
		-ihti (poss.)  nu-ihti "my stomach"
		CN (i) ʔtitl (Car.) "vientre"
(SD) ihti

(SD) mu-ihti-a:paka (r.v.)  		lavarse la barriga 
		to wash one's abdomen
		cf. ihti "belly", a:paka "to wash"

(C) ihtibó:n  				panzón
		pot-bellied, paunch 
		ihihtibó:n (pl.) cf. ihti "belly"

(C) ihti-k  				adentro inside
		ka ihtik "inside" 
		cf. ihti "belly", -k 'locative'
		CN (i) ʔtik (Car.); PN *-ihti k
(SD) ihti-k

(SD) ihti-kukuk   			tamal de frijol, pupusa; dolor del estómago (ihtiguguk)
		bean tamale, pupusa; stomach ache
		cf. ihti "stomacah", kukuk "ache, hurt(ing)"

(C) ihti-sulu:ni (i.v.)  			inflar el estómago, soplarse del estómago 
		for one's stomach to inflate, swell
		ihtisulu:ni (pres.)
		ihtisulu:ni-k (pret.)
		ihtisulu:n-tuk (perf.) n-ihtisulu:n-tuk "my stomach has swelled"
		cf. ihti "belly", sulu:ni "to swell"

(C) ihti-sulu:n-tuk (adj.)  		hinchado de la barriga
		having a swelled stomach
		cf. ihti-sulu:ni "for one's stomach to swell", -tuk 'perf.

(C) ihtutia (t.v., r.v.)  			bailar
		to dance
		ihtitutia  (pres.) ni-m-ihtutia "I dance",  ni-k-ihtutia "I'm dancing it"          
		ihtutih (pret.)
		ihtutih-tuk (perf.)
		CN iʔto(:)tia (Car.), iʔtotia (UC)
(SD) ihtutia
		ni-k-ihtutia "I dance it" (nigihtutiyaʔ)

(C) ihtsilika (i.v.)  			temblar (de animales, de gente)
		to tremble, to shake (of animals, people)
		ihtsilika (pres.) n-ihtsilika "I'm trembling"
		ihtsilika-k (pret.)
		ihtsilika-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ihtsilitsa (t.v.) "to shake (it)", tsili:ni "to ring"
		CN tzitzilca (Mol.) "temblar"; tzitzilica (Sim.) "sonar, resonar"
(SD) ihtsilika

(SD) ihtsilikaltia (t.v.)  		temblarlo
		to shake
		ihtsilikaltia (pres.)
		ihtsilikaltih (pret.)
		ihtsilikaltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ihtsilika "to shake, tremble", -(l)tia 'caus.'
		cf. (C) ihtsilitsa

(C) ihtsilitsa (t.v.)  			temblar, sacudir
		to shake
		ihtsilitsa (pres.)
		ihtsilits-ki (pret.) ni-k-ihtsilits-ki "I shook it" 
		ihtsilits-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ihtsilika (i.v.) "to shake", tsili:ni "to ring"
		CN tzitzilitza (Sim.) "hacer sonar, repicar una campana"
		cf. (SD) ihtsilikaltia

(C) (i)htsuma (t.v.) 			costurar, coser
		to sew
		ihtsuma (pres.)
		ihtsun-ki (pret.)
		ihtsun-tuk (perf.) ni-k-ihtun-tuk "I have sewn it" 
		cf. ta-htsuma "to be sewing (something)"
		CN iʔtsoma (Car.)
		cf. (SD) tsuma

(C) ihxihxi:ma (t.v., redup.(?))  	raspar (con machete)
		to scrape (with a machete)
		ihxihxi:ma (pres.) ni-k-ihxihxi:ma "I'm scraping it" 
		ihxihxi:n-ki (pret.)
		ihxihxi:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-ihxihxi:ma "to be scraping (something)"
		cf. xi:ma "to cut one's hair"

(C) ihya-k (adj.)  hediondo, apestoso
		stinking
		CN iʔya:k (Car.); PN *ihya:k
(SD) ihya-k

(SD) ihyal  				pedo
		fart
		cf. ihya-k "stinking", ihya:-ya "to stink", -l 'passive nominalization'
		CN iyelli (Mol.) "pedo"

(C) ihya:ya  				heder, apestar
		to stink
		ihya:ya (pres.)  ihya:ya "it stinks"
		ihya:ya-k (pret.)
		ihya:ya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ihya-k "stinking", -ya -inchoative'
		CN iʔya:ya (UC); iyaya (Sim.) "tener mal olor"
(SD) ihya:ya

(C) ihyu:miki  				suspirar
		to sigh, to pant
		ihyu:miki (pres.)
		ihyu:mik (pret.) n-ihyu:mik-ki-ya "I already sighed" 
		ihyu:mik-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ihiyu "breath", miki "to die"
(SD) ihyumiki
		ihyumik, ihyumiki-k (pret.)

(C) ihyu:mik-tsin 			"el duende" (ser sobrenatural)
		"the dwarf", goblin (supernatural being) 
		cf. ihyu:miki "to sigh", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) ika (conj.)  			por eso, a veces
		therefore, sometimes
		CN ica (Sim.) "alguna vez"

(SD) ikahku  				arriba
		up
		cf. ik- "therefore, with which" ('por eso, con que' (?)), ahku "up (arriba)"

(C) -i:ka-w  				hermano menor, hermana menor
		younger sibling
		i-i:ka-w "his/her younger sibling"
		nu-i:ka-w "my younger sibling"
		CN teic(c)auh (Sim.) "hermano/hermana menor" 
(SD) -i:ka-w  hermana menor de mujer
		woman's younger sister

(C) ikma:n (adv., adj.)  		antiguo, antiguamente
		ancient, old, formerly, in olden days, in the past
		cf. ik- ('with which, then'), -man 'locative-temporal' suffix 
(SD) ikman

(C) iknu:pil  				huerfano
		orphan
		iknu:pipil (pl.)
		cf. iknu:-tsin
		CN ikno:pilli (Car.)
(SD) iknu:pil

(C) iknu:-tsin  				huerfano
		orphan
		cf. iknu:pil, -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN ikno:-tsin (Car.)
(SD) iknu:-tsin

(SD) ikpa(-)t  				hilo (palabra arcáica)
		thread (archaic word)
		-ikpat (poss.) nu-ikpat "my thread"
		ihikpat (pl.)
		CN icpatl (Sim.); PN *ɨkpa 

(C) iksu-t  				izote
		plant sp., yucca (?)
		CN cf. iccotl (Sim.) "palmera de las montañas"

(C) ikuka  				entonces (igugaʔ)
		then
		cf. (?) ik- ('therefore'), -uk ('when'), -a 'already' 
		CN cf. ic "por eso", oc "ahora, aún, todavía" (Sim.)

(SD) ikuni  				ahi, por ahi  (iguniʔ)
		(over) there
		cf. ik- ('with which'), uni "that"
		CN cf. ic "por eso", on "that" (Sim.)

(SD) ikwit-puyu   			titilcuite, titilgüita (el excremento aguado, negro, y muy 						apestoso de las gallinas cluecas)
		black and very stinky excrement from laying hens
		cf. i- 'its', kwita-t "excrement", puyu "chicken"

(SD) ikx-ahsi (t.v.)  			alcanzar
		to reach, to overtake, to catch up with
		ikkxahsi (pres.) ni-k-ikxahsi "I'm catching up with him" 
		ikxahsi-k (pret.)
		ikxahsi-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (i)kxi "foot", ahsi "to arrive, to find"

(C) (i)kxi  				pie, pata
		foot, hoof, paw
		i-ikxi "his/her/its foot"
		nu-kxi "my foot"
		i-ih-ikxi "his/her/its feet"
		nuhnu-kxi "my feet"
		CN (i)kxi-tl (Car.); PN *(ɨ)kxi 
(SD) (i)kxi
		muh-mu-kxi "your feet"

(C) mu-ikxi-chalua (r.v.)  		tropezar
		to stumble
		cf. ikxi "foot", chalua "to hit"
(C) ikxi-kutu  				cuto de la pierna, corto del pie (tunco, manco) 
		one-legged
		cf. (i)kxi "foot", kutu "short"
(SD) ikxikutu

(C) ikxi-pan  				a pie
		on foot
		cf. (i)kxi "foot", -pan 'on, place of'
		CN icxipan (Mol.)

(C) ikxipipil  				dedo de pie
		toe
		-ikxipipil (poss.) nu-ikxipipil "my toe" 
		cf. (i)kxi "foot", pi:pil "child"
		CN cf. (i)cxopil, xopilli (Sim.) 
(SD) (i)kxipipil
		ihikxipipil (pl.)
		nu-kxipipil "my toe" 
		nuhnu-kxipipil "my toes" 
		muhmu-kxipipil "your toes"

(C) (i)kxi-sulu:n-tuk (adj.)  		hinchado del pie
		with swollen foot
		cf. (i)kxi "foot", sulu:ni "to swell", -tuk 'perf.'

(C) (i)kxi taxkal  			plantilla de pie
		sole (of foot)
		cf. (i)kxi "foot", taxkal "tortilla, rigua; palm of hand"

(SD) (i)kx-u:mi-yu  			espinilla
		shin(bone)
		cf. (i)kxi "foot", u:mi-t "bone", -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) i:lerah  				hilo
		thread
		Sp. hilera
(SD) i:le:rah

(C) ilpia (t.v.)  			amarrar
		to tie
		ilpia (pres.)
		ilpih (pret.) ni-k-ilpih "I tied it"
		ilpih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-ilpia "to be tying (something)"
		CN (i)lpia (Car.); PN *(ɨ)lpi 
(SD) ilpia
(C) ilwia (t.v.)  			decir
		to say, to tell
		ilwia (pres.) ni-k-ilwia "I tell him (it)" (nigilwiyaʔ)
		ilwih (pret.)
		ilwih-tuk (perf.)
		CN (i)lwia (Car.)
(SD) ilwia

(SD) ilwi-ki:sa (i.v.)  			celebrar (fiesta religiosa)
		to celebrate a religious ceremony
		ilwiki:sa (pres.)  ilwiki:sa "she's celebrating"
		ilwiki:s-ki (pret.)
		ilwiki:s-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ilwi-t "ceremony (fiesta)", ki:sa "to leave, come out"

(C) ilwi(-)t  				fiesta
		ceremony, fiesta
		-ilwi-w (poss.)  nu-ilwi-w "my celebration, fiesta" 
		ihilwit (pl.)
		CN (i)lwitl (Car.)
(SD) illwi-t 
		nu-ilwit "my fiesta"

(C) ilwitia (t.v.)  			mostrar, enseñaar
		to show, to teach
		ilwitia (pres.)
		ilwitih (pret.) k-ilwitih "(he) showed it" 
		ilwitih-tuk (perf.) 
		cf. ilwia "to say, tell", -tia 'caus.'
(SD) ilwitia

(SD) imax-kabayuh  			un animalito peludo con antena 
		insect sp., a hairy insect with feelers
		cf. i- 'its', -max "pubic hair", kabayuh "horse"

(C) i-mey meta-t  			manod de piedra de moler (mano de metate)
		hand-stone of quern (metate)
		cf. i- 'its', -mey "hand", meta-t "quern (metate)" 

(C) i-mihkwitayan  tihlan   		Cagadero de Gallina (un cerro, volcancito de tierra) 			"Chicken's crapper" (name of a nearby small dirt mountain)
		cf. i- 'its', kwita-t "exrement", tihlan "chicken"

(C) i(:)na (i.v.)  			decir, habalar
		to say, to speak, to report 
		(note: i(:)na is intransitive, but some use it with direct objects but without the object 			pronominal prefixes normally required by all transitive verbs.)
		i(:)na (pres.)
		i(:)na-k (pret.)
		i(:)nak-tuk (pret.)
(SD) ina
		ina-tuk (perf.)

(SD) inanuh  				enano
		dwarf
		Sp. enano

(C) i:naya (t.v., r.v.)  			esconder
		to hide
		i:naya  (pres.) ni-k-i:naya "I hide  it",  ni-m-i:naya "I'm hiding (myself)"
		i:nax-ki (pret.) ti-m-i:nax-ke-t "we hid (ourselves)"
		i:nax-tuk (perf.)
		CN i:na:ya (Car.)
(SD) i:naya

(SD) indihestado(h) (adj.)  		(estando con) indigestión
		having indigestion
		Sp. indigestado (cf. indigestión)

(SD) indi(y)us  			indígena
		Indian, native person
		Sp. indios

(SD) inhiernuh  			infierno
		hell
		Sp. infierno

(C) ini  				este, esta, esto; éste, ésta, ésto 
		this
		CN in(in) (Sim.)
(SD) ini
		cf. also yahini "this"

(SD) inkaminar, -chiwa  		encaminar
		to guide, to direct, to show the way 
		Sp. encaminar

(SD) insendedor, ensendedor  	eslabón
		flint (for starting fire) 
		Sp. encendedor

(Ataco, Tacuba, etc.) inte  	no 
		no
		cf. (C, SD) te:, tesu "no"

(SD) intendér, -chiwa  		entender 
		to understand
		Sp. entender

(SD) -ipan  				detrás de
		behind
		ka ipan "behind"
		ka nu-ipan "behind me" 
		CN ipan (Mol.) "encima"

(C) i:sa (i.v.)  				despertarse to wake up, to awake 
		i:sa (pres.)
		i:sa-k (pret.)
		i:sa-tuk (perf.) n-i:sa-tuk "I have woken up" 
		cf. i:xitia "to wake (someone)"
		CN iʔsa (Car.)
(SD) i:sa
		x-i:sa "wake up!"

(SD) isalku  				Izalco
		Izalco (town name)
		cf. -ku 'locative'

(SD) i:seki (t.v.) 			tostar
		to toast
		i:seki (pres.)
		i:sek (pret.) k-i:seh-ke-t "they toasted it" 
		i:sek-tuk (perf.)
		xi-k-i:seki "toast it!"
		cf. ta-i:seki "to be toasting (something)" 
		CN (i)cequi (Sim.) "tostar"

(SD) iskalera(h)  			escalera
		ladder
		Sp. escalera
		cf. (C) eska:lerah

(C) iskalia (t.v.)  			criar 
		to raise, to rear 
		iskalia (pres.) 
		iskalih (pret.) ni-k-iskalih "I raised him" 
		iskalih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-iskalia "to be raising"
		CN (i)skalia (Car.) "resucitar, doctrinar"; cf. (i)zcaltia (Sim.) "crecer, criar"      
(SD) iskalia
		cf. t-iskalia "to be raising"

(C) ista-k 				blanco
		white
		(note: the form is ista:k- in some compounds)
		ihistak (pl.)
		cf. ista-t "salt", -k 'adj.'
		CN ista:k (Car.)      
(SD) ista-k

(C) ista:ka  				clara de huevo (ista:gaʔ)
		egg white
		cf. istak "white", (?) a:-t "water"
		cf. (SD) istak-a:yu
(SD) istaka
		(i-)istaka teksisti "egg white"

(C) istak-atime-t  			chichuisa, piojo blanco
		louse sp., "white" louse 
		cf. istak "white", atime-t "louse"
		cf. (SD) ixtakayut

(SD) istak-a:yu  			clara de huevo
		egg white
		cf. istak "white", a:-t "water", -yu 'intimate poss.' 
		CN iztacayotl (Sim.) "blancura, blanco de huevo"
		cf. (C) ista:ka

(C) istak-ehtapal  			paloma (con alas blancas)
		dove sp., "white-winged" dove
		cf. istak "white", ehtapal "wing"

(SD) istak-e:-t  			frijol blanco (istáge:t),(istagé:t) 
		cf. istak "white", e:-t "bean"

(C) ista(:)k-u:wa-t  			cana blanca (ista(:)gu:wat) 
		cane sp., white cane
		cf. istak "white", u:wa-t "cane"

(C) ista-t  				sal
		salt
		-ista-w (poss.) nu-ista-w "my salt" 
		CN (i)statl (Car.); PN *ɨsta 

(C) istatenan  				istaten (árbol)
		tree sp.
		cf. (?) ista-t "salt" (or ista-k "white (?))

(C) istawia (t.v.)  			salar
		to salt
		istawia (pres.)
		istawih (pret.)
		istawih-tuk (perf.) ni-k-istawih-a "I've already salted it" 
		cf. ta-istawia "to be salting"
		cf. ista-t "salt"
		CN ista:wia (Car.)
(SD) istawia

(SD) istaya (i.v.)  			blanquearse
		to whiten, to turn white, to become white
		istaya (pres.)
		istaya-k (pret.) istaya-ke-t "they turned white" 
		istaya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ista-k "white", -ya 'inchoative'
		CN istaya (UC) "pararse blanco"

(C) isti(-)t  				uña, garra
		(finger)nail, claw
		-istit (poss.)  nu-istit "my fingernail"
		CN (i)stitl (Car.); istitl, istetl (Sim.); PN *ɨstq-  
		cf. (SD) itsti-t

(C) istiwia (t.v.)  			peliscar, pellizcar
		to pinch
		istiwia (pres.)
		istiwih (pret.) k-istiwih "(he) pinched him"
		istiwih-tuk (perf.)
		te: xi-nech-istiwi "don't pinch me!"
		cf. isti-t "fingernail"
		cf. (SD) itstiwia

(C) m-isu:ta (r.v.)  			arrojar, vomitar
		to vomit, to throw up
		m-isu:ta (pres.)  ni-m-isu:ta "I vomit"
		m-isu:ta-k (pret.)
		m-isu:ta-tuk (perf.)
		CN iso:tla (UC); içotla (Sim.)
(SD) m-i:suta
(C) iswa-t  				hoja
		leaf
		(i-)iswa-yu (poss.) (i-)iswa-yu kwawi-t "tree's leaf" 
		(i-)iswa-yu mi:l "corn leaf (hoja de milpa)"
		CN (i)zuatl (Sim.)

(C) ita, ida (t.v., irregular)  		ver, mirar 
		to see, to look at
		ida, ita (pres.)
		ida-k, ita-k (pret.) 
		its-tuk (perf.) 
		xi-k-ida "look at it!" 
		cf. (?) tatwi "to dawn", tatwa "to have fun"
		CN (i)tta; PN *(ɨ)hta
(SD) ita
		xi-k-ita "look at it!"

(SD) ita(:)kayu (a:-t)  			cucaracha de río
		insect sp., a river insect, like a fly (water skeeter (?)) 
		cf. (?) perhaps i- 'its', ta:ka-t "man", -yu 'intimate poss.', a:-t "water, river" – 				literally "river man" (?)

(C) iteksis-kuyame-t  			cojón (árbol con fruta de forma de frijol, su resina se 						usa para pagamento)
		tree sp., has bean-shaped fruit and gum used for glue; literally "pig-testicle"
		cf. i- 'its', teksis-ti "egg, testicle", kuyame-t "pig"
(SD) iteksis-kuyame-t

(SD) ite:n-a:yu tuka-t  		telarana
		spider web, cobweb
		i- 'its', te:n-a:yu "saliva", tuka-t "spider"
		cf. (C) tsa:wal

(SD) itetunkah  			cuña, puntal
		wedge, prop
		cf. i- 'its', tetun-ti "wedge"

(C) itew-tamakas   		tamagás, piedra de tamagás (clase de colmena de abejas) 
		kind of beehive
		cf. i- 'its', te-w "stone" (poss.), tamakas "tamagás" snake

(SD) m-itu:nia (r.v.)  		sudar
		to sweat
		m-itu:nia (pres.)
		m-itu:nih (pret.) m-itu:nih-ke-t "they sweated"
		m-itu:nih-tuk (perf.)
		CN itonia (Sim.)
		cf. (C) m-itu:niya

(C) m-itu:niya (r.v.)  			sudar
		to sweat
		m-itu:niya (pres.)
		m-itu:nix-ki (pret.)
		m-itu:nix-tuk (perf.) ni-m-itu:nix-tuk "I have sweated" 
		cf. CN itonia (Sim.)
		cf. (SD) m-itu:nia

(C) itskia (t.v.)  			agarrar
		to grab
		itskia (pres.) ni-k-itskia "I grab it" (nigitskiyaʔ) 
		itskih (pret.)
		itskih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i(t)sti-t "fingernail, claw"
(SD) itskia

(SD) itsti(-)t 				uña, garra
		(finger)nail, claw
		-itstit (poss.) nu-itstit "my fingernail"
		CN istitl (Car.); iztitl, iztetl (Sim.); PN *ɨstə-
		cf. (C) isti-t

(C) i-tsinteyu (ikxi)  			carcañal, talón
		heel
		cf. i- 'its', -tsinte-yu "heel", (i)kxi "foot"
		cf. (SD) i-tsunteyu -(i)kxi

(SD) itstiwia (t.v.)  			peliscar, pellizcar
		to pinch
		itstiwia (pres.)
		itstiwih (pret.)
		itstiwih-tuk (pret.)
		maka xi-nech-itstiwi "don't pinch me!"
		cf. itsti-t "fingernail, claw"
		cf. (C) istiwia

(SD) i-tsunteyu -(i)kxi 		talón
		heel
		cf. i- 'its' -tsunteyu "heel", (i)kxi "foot"
		cf. (C) i-tsinteyu (ikxi)    

(SD) i-wahkal -tewahka  		rótula
		kneecap
		cf. i- 'its', wahkal "gourd bowl", -tewahka "knee" 
		cf. -wahkal "kneecap"
	
(SD) iwal  				igual, al nível de
		equal, equivalent, on the same level
		Sp. igual
	
(C) i:x  				ojo ('cara' en palabras compuestas)
		eye ('face' in compounds) 
		-i:x (poss.)
		nu-i:x "my eye"
		ihi:x (pl.)
		nuhnu-i:x "my eyes"
		(i-)ihi:x, (i-)ihi:x "his/her/its eyes" 
		CN i:xtli (Car.) "cara (ojo)"; PN *i:x-
(SD) i:x
	
(C) i:x  				pepita, hueso (de fruta)
		pit
		i-i:x a:wakat  "avocado seed"
		i-i:x manguh "mango pit, seed" 
		i-i:x tsaput "zapote pit"
		cf. i:x "eye" (note: "pit/seed" and "eye" are related or the same in most Mesoamerican 			languages)
(SD) i:x 	pepita, hueso (de fruta)
		pit
		cf. i:x "grain, seed"; cf. i:x "eye"
	
(SD) i:x  				grano (semilla)
		grain, seed
		i:x-ayuh "pumpkin seed"
		i:x-sinti "corn kernel (on the cob)" (granito de maíz (de mazorca))
		i:x-tawiyal "corn kernel, corn seed (shelled)" (grano de maíz (desgranado))
		i:x-e:t "bean, bean seed"
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', "pit"

(SD) -i:x  cuenta (de collar)
		bead
		i-i:x kuskat  "necklace bead" 
		cf. i:x "eye, grain, pit, seed"

(SD) i:xahketsua (t.v.,  r.v.)   		acostar(se) boca arriba, quedarse boca arriba
		to lie down face up, to lay (something) down face up 
		i:xahketsua (pres.) mu-ix:ahketsua "he lies face up", 
		k-i:xahketsua "(she) put it down face up" (gixahketsuwaʔ)
		i:xahketsuh (pret.)
		i:xahketsih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x- 'face',  ah- 'buccal'; cf. ahketswetsi "to fall face up"; cf. (?) ketsa "to stand, 				raise, lift"
	
(SD) i:xatia (t.v.)  			despertar
		to wake (someone) up
		i:xatia (pres.)
		i:xatih (pret.) k-i:xatih-ke-t "they wake her up" 
		i:xatih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:sa "to wake up", -tia 'caus.'
		CN ixitia (Sim.)
		cf. (C) i:xitia

(C) i:x-a:yu  				lágrima
		tear
		-i:xa:yu (poss.)  nu-i:xa:yu "my tear"
		ihi:xa:yu (pl.)
		cf. i:x "eye", a:-t "water", -yu 'intimate poss.'
		CN ixayotl (Sim.)
(SD) i:xa:yu

(SD) i:xchihche:le  			chibola, chichón, chipote (inflamación) 
		bump, lump, swelling
		cf. i:x- "eye", 'face'; Sp. chibola, -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) i:xchihche:le  cheles (del ojo), legañas
		"sleepy seeds" (eye secretion)
		cf. i:x "eye", Sp. chele (redup.)

(C) i:xchiku  				bizco
	cross-eyed, cock-eyed
	cf. i:x "eye"
	CN cf.  i:x- "eye", chicu, chico (Sim.) "al reves, irregularmente" 

(C) i:xchukulu   			choco, ciego
	blind, one-eyed
	cf. i:x "eye", (?) chu:ka "to cry"

(C) i:xchu:yu				llorón
		cry baby (one who cries a lot)
		cf. i:x “eye”

(SD) -i:xewayu  			párpado
		eyelid
		cf. i:x "eye", ewayu "skin"

(C) i:xihkatuk  			cuesta arriba, empinado
		up hill, steep
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', ihka-tuk "standing"

(C) (i-)i:x -(i)kxi  			tobillo, ojo de pie
		ankle, ankle bone
		(i-)i:x nu-kxi  "my ankle"
		cf. -i:x "eye", (i)kxi "foot"
(SD) (i-)i:x -(i)kxi

(C) ixi:nyu-kwawi-t, xi:nyu-kwawi-t 	palo jiote
		tree sp., "peeling-skin" tree
		cf. i- 'its', xi:nyu "skin desease (impetigo (?))", kwawi-t "tree"       

(C) i:xitia (t.v.)  			despertar  
		to wake (someone) up
		i:xitia (pres.)
		i:xitih (pret.) ni-k-i:xtih "I woke him up"
		i:xitih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:sa "to wake up", -(i)tia 'caus.'
		CN i(?)xitia (Car.)
		cf. (SD) i:xatia

(C) ixka (t.v.)  				asar
		to roast, to fry 
		ixka (pres.)
		ixka-k (pret.)
		ixka-tuk (perf.) ni-k-ixka-tuk "I've roasted it"
		cf. ta-ixka "to be roasting"
		CN (i)xka (Car.)
(SD) ixka

(C) -i:xkaliyu  				cara
		face
		nu-i:xkaliyu "my face" (nuwi:xkaliyuʔ)
		cf. i:x- 'face', (?) kal "house", -yu 'intimate poss.' 
		CN cf. ixcallotl (Sim.) "órbita, la cavidad de ojo" 
		cf. (SD) i:xkalyu "eyebrow"

(SD) i:xkalyu  				ceja
		eyebrow
		-i:xkalyu (poss.) ny-i:xkalyu "my eyebrow"
		ihi:xkalyu (pl.)
		CN cf. ixcallotl (Sim.) "órbita, la cavidad del ojo" 
		cf. (C) i:xkaliyu "cara"

(SD) ixkanal 				iscanal (árbol)
		tree sp., with many thorns and long branches
		cf. (C) axkanel

(C) ixka-tuk (adj.)  			asado
		roasted, fried 
		cf. ixka "to roast, fry", -tuk 'perf.'

(C) i:xkehketsa (t.v.)  			acordarse, pensar
		to remember, to think
		i:xkehketsa (pres.)
		i:xkehkets-ki (pret.) ni-k-i:xkehkets-ki "I remembered it" (nigixkehketskiʔ)
		i:xkehkets-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', (?) ketsa "to stand"; cf. i:xketsa "to raise, lift"
		CN cf. (?) ixquetza (Sim.) "ofrecerse para hacer algo, darse como fianza"

(SD) i:xkehketsa (t.v.)  		pensar, imaginar
		to think, to imagine

(C) i:xketsa (t.v.)  			levantar
		to lift, to raise
		i:xketsa (pres.) ni-k-i:xketsa "I'm lifting it" (nigixgetsaʔ)
		i:xkets-ki (pret.)
		i:xkets-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', ketsa "to get up, to stand"
		CN cf. ixquetza (Sim.) "ofrecerse para hacaer algo, darse como fianza"

(C) i:xkipi-tsin  			lucerna, luciernaga
		firefly, lightning bug
		ihi:xkipitsin (pl.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', (?) kipi "scar", -tsin 'diminutive' 
		CN icpitl (Sim.)
		cf. (SD) i:xpitsin

(C) i:xku   				isco, ixco, lindero (de tarea, de cuadra)
		boundary marker
		cf. i:x- 'face', -ku 'locative'
		CN cf. i:xko (Car.); ixco (Mol.) "en la cara"; (Sim.) "sobre la cara, sobre la superficie"
(SD) i:xku  	lindero, tarea, seña o señal de tarea o cuadra 
		boundary marker, field marker
		-i:xku (poss.) nu-i:xku "my marker, my boundary"
		ihi:xku (pl.)
		na:wi i:xku "tarea" (a work area considered a "job", a day's work, literally "four 				boundaries")

(C) i:xkuh-weyak  			long; see i:xkuweyak

(C) i:x-kukul-ita   			ojear, dar el mal de ojo
		to give the evil eye
		i:xkukulita (pres.)
		i:xkukulits-ki (pret.) k-i:xkukulits-ke-t-a "they already gave him the evil eye" 
		i:xkukulits-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", kukulis "sickness", ita "to see, look at"

(SD) ixkumún 			perniza, perdiza, perdíz, paloma de montaña 
		partridge, grouse (?)
		cf. (?)  Spanish influence; cf. (?) i:xku "boundary",  mu:n "girlfriend, bride"
(C) i:xkuweyak, i:xkuhweyak  largo, cosa larga
	long, something long
	cf. i:xku "boundary, sign", weyak "long"

(SD) i:xkuweyak  			cara larga
		long face
		cf. i:x- 'face'

(SD) i:xkwa-t   			huele-de-noche (árbol)
		tree sp., smells bad, its leaves are toasted and a dough made which stops itching of 			foot fungus, also for headaches (literally "smells-at-night" tree)
		cf. (?) i:x "eye", 'face'

(C) i:xkwehkwelech-nah (adj.)  	arrugado
		wrinkled
		cf. i:x- 'face', (?) kwe:l-nah "bent, curved"
		CN cf. ixcueloa (Mol.) "torcerse el madero"

(C) i:xkwepa (t.v.)  			botar, voltear
		to throw down or out, to turn over
		i:xkwepa (pres.)
		i:xkwep-ki (pret.) ni-k-i:xkwep-ki "I threw it out"
		i:xkwep-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face'; kwepa "to return"
		CN cf. ixcuepa (Sim.) "evolver algo, perderse, errar, engañar" 
(SD) i:xkwepa (t.v., i.v.) 	botar, dar vuelta a, derramarse
		to throw down or out, to turn (something), to pour, spill 
		i:xkwep-ki "it spilled"
		k-i:xkwep-ki "(she) knocked it over"

(C) i:xkwetax  		sin vergüenza
		shameless, shameful person
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', kwetax-ti "leather"

(C) i:xkwikwil-nah  		pintado de la cara, sucio de la cara
		with painted face, dirty-faced
		cf. i:x- 'face', kwikwil-nah "painted"
		CN cf. ixcuicuiliuhqui (Sim.) "que tiene la cara sucia, llena de manchas"

(C) i:xma:skrah   máscara
		mask
		cf. i:x- 'face', ma:skrah (from Sp. maascara)
		(C) i:xmati (t.v., incorp.)  conocer, reconocer
		to know, to be familiar with, acquainted with, to meet i:xmati (pres.) ni-k-i:xmati "I 			know him" (nigixmatiʔ)
		i:xmat-ki (pret.)
		i:xmat-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', mati "to know"
		CN iximate (Sim.)
(SD) i:xmati  

(C) i:xma:ti:lua (t.v., incorp.)  	repellar,  refinar (frotando la superficie de algo)
		to finish, to refine, to plaster, to rub fine (e.g. a wall)
		i:xma:ti:lua (pres.) k-i:xma:ti:lua "I finish it" (gixmati:luwaʔ)
		i:xma:ti:luh (pret.)
		i:xma:ti:luh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x- 'face', ma:ti:lua "to smooth, to finish"
		CN cf. ixmatiloa (Sim.) "frotar la cara de alguien"

(C) i:xmehme:le    			lerdo (lento, despacio, anda cayendo); muchacho inútil
		slow, dull; useless boy
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face'; (?) mela:wa "to lay, to extend"

(C) i:xmekayu    			correa
		leather strip, strap, string
		cf. i:x "eye", meka-t "string", -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) i:xmekayu kak-ti   		bejuquilla, bejuquillo (culebra)
		snake sp., very thin, green snake that looks like a vine, said to be poisonous 
		cf. i:x-meka-yu "leather strip", kak-ti "sandal"
(C) i:xmimilua (t.v., r.v., incorp.) 	rodar(se),  revolcar(se), girar
		to roll, to roll over, to revolve
		i:xmimilua (pres.)
		i:xmimiluh (pret.) mu-i:xmimiluh "it  rolled",  k-i:xmimiluh "(he) rolled it"
		i:xmimiluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', mimilua "to roll"

(C) i:xmu:hmuts  			hijo del sol (albino)
		albino (person)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face'
		CN cf. (?) ixmomotzoa (Sim.) "aranar la cara de alguien"

(C) mu-i:xmu:tia (r.v.)    		asustarse
		to be frightened
		mu-i:xmu:tia (pres.)
		mu-i:xmu:tih (pret.)
		mu-i:xmu:tih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', mu:tia "to frighten"
(SD) -i:xmu:tia (t.v., r.v.) 	asustar(se), espantar(se), escarmentar 
		to frighten, to scare, to warn/scare off
		mu-i:xmu:tia "it was frightened", k-i:xmu:tia "(she) scared it"

(C) i:xpahpa:ki (i.v., redup., incorp.) 	estar contento
		to be happy
		i:xpahpa:ki (pres.) n-i:xpahpa:ki "I'm happy" (nixpahpa:giʔ) 
		i:xpahpa:ki-k (pret.)
		i:xpahpa:ki-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', pa:ki "to be happy"
(SD) i:xpahpa:ki  			sonreirse
		to smile

(C) i:xpa:ka (t.v.)  			lavar (trastes, etc.)
		to wash (e.g. dishes, etc.)
		i:xpa:ka (pres.) ni-k-i:xpa:ka "I wash it" nigixpa:gaʔ)
		i:xpa:ka-k (pret.)
		i:xpak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x- 'face', pa:ka "to wash"
		cf. ta-i:xpa:ka "to wash (something), be washing"
(SD) i:xpa:ka (t.v.) 	lavar (trastes)
		to wash (dishes)
		i:xpa:k, i:xpa:ka-k (pret.)
		cf. mu-i:xpa:ka "to wash one's face"

(SD) mu-i:xpa:ka (r.v.)  		lavarse la cara
		to wash one's face
		cf. i:x- 'face', pa:ka "to wash"; cf. i:x-pa:ka "to wash"

(C) i:xpalua (t.v.)  			lamber, lamer
		to lick
		i:xpalua (pres.)
		i:xpaluh (pret.) ni-k-i:xpaluh "I licked it"
		i:xpaluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-i:xpalua "to lick (something)"
		CN ixpaloa (Mol.) "sacar mota del ojo con la lengua", papaloa (Mol.) "lamer(se)";  			paloa (Mol.) "mojar el pan en alguna salsa"; PN *palowa
(SD) i:xpalua

(C) -i:xpan  				delante de
		before, in front of
		nu-i:xpan "before me, in front of me"
		cf. i:x- 'cara', -pan 'locative' 
		CN ixpan (Sim.)
(SD) -i:xpan
		nu-i:xpan "in front of me" 
		mu-i:xpan "in front of you" 
		i-i:xpan "in front of him"
		ka i:xpan "it is ahead, it is in front"

(C) i:xpanua (t.v.)  			poner en frente, poner al frente, poner delante de
		to place before, to put in front of
		i:xpanua (pres.)
		i:xpanuh (pret.) (?)
		i:xpanuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:xpan "in front of", -ua 'caus./passive'

(C) i:xpehpena (t.v., incorp.)    	escoger
		to choose, to pick out, to select
		i:xpehpena (pres.)
		i:xpehpen-ki (pret.) ni-k-i:xpehpen-ki "I chose it" (nigixpehpengiʔ)
		i:xpehpen-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', pehpena "to pick up"
		CN cf. ixpepena (Car.) "escoger a alguien por su cara"
(SD) i:xpehpena

(SD) i:xpe:l, i:xpe:l-xuti   		clase de jute, clase de caracol
		snail sp.
		cf. i:xpe:lua "to open", xuti "snail" 

(C) i:xpe:lua (t.v.)  			abrir más
		to open wider
		i:xpe:lua (pres.) k-i:xpe:lua "(he) opens it more"
		i:xpe:luh (pret.)
		i:xpe:luh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', pe:lua "to open"
		CN ixpeloa (Sim.) "abrir desmesuradamente los ojos, removerlos" 
(SD) i:xpe:lua

(SD) i:xpi:lka 				agachado, empinado (i:xpi:lkaʔ)
		squatting, steep
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', i:x-pilua "to squat", -ka 'perf. nominalization' (?) 

(SD) i:xpilua (t.v., r.v., incorp.) 	agachar(se)
		to squat, to bend
		i:xpilua (pres.) ni-k-i:xpilua "I bend it down", ni-mu-i:xpilua "I squat" 
		i:xpiluh (pret.)
		i:xpiluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', pilua "to hang"
		CN cf. ixpiloa (Sim.) "bajar los ojos"

(C) i:xpi:na:wa (i.v., incorp.)   	tener vergüenza, darse vergüenza, avergonzarse
		to be ashamed
		i:xpi:na:wa (pres.) n-i:xpi:na:wa "I'm ashamed"
		i:xpi:na:h-ki (pret.)
		i:xpi:na:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face'
		CN ixpinaua (Sim.); cf. pi:na:wia (Car.) "avergonzarse"
(SD) i:xpina:wa
		i:xpina:wa-k (pret.)
		i:xpina:w-tuk, i:xpina:wa-tuk (perf.)

(C) i:xpitsa (t.v., incorp.)   		soplar, inflar, sorber
		to blow, to inflate, to fan
		i:xpitsa (pres.) ni-k-i:xpitsa "I blow it"
		i:xpits-ki (pret.)
		i:xpits-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', pitsa "to blow"
(SD) i:xpitsa (t.v., r.v., incorp.) 	soplar, inflar, sorber, abanicar(se)
		to blow, to inflate, to fan (oneself) 
		k-i:xpitsa "(she) blows it" 
		mu-i:xpitsa "(she) fans herself"

(SD) i:xpitsin  				lucerna, luciernaga 
		firefly, lightning bug
		ihi:xpitsin (pl.)
		cf. (?) i:x "eye", 'face', -tsin 'diminutive'
		cf. (C) i:xkipitsin

(SD) i:xpulua (t.v., r.v., incorp.)  		perder(se)
		to get lost, to loose
		i:xpulua (pres.) ni-mu-i:xpulua "I get lost", ni-k-i:xpulua "I loose it"
		i:xpuluh (pret.)
		i:xpuluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', pulua "to loose"

(C) i:xpupuchwia (t.v., incorp.)    		estar sajumeando (sahumando)(un santo)
		to burn incense (for a saint)
		i:xpupuchwia  (pres.) ni-k-i:xpupuchwia "I'm burning incense for it" 					(nigixpupuchwiyaʔ)
		i:xpupuchwih(-ki) (pret.)
		i:xapupuchwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x- 'face', pupuchwia "to burn incense for"
		cf. (C) pupuchwia

(C) i:xpu:pu:wa (t.v., r.v.)  			limpiar(se) la cara
		to wash one's face, to wash someone's face
		i:xpu:pu:wa (pres.) mu-i:xpu:pu:wa "(she) is washing her face" 
		i:xpu:pu:h (pret.)
		i:xpu:pu:h-tuk (pret.)
		cf. i:x- 'cara', pu:pu:wa "to clean"
		CN ixpopoa (Sim.) "lavar, limpiar, planchar"
(SD) mu-i:xpupu:wa (r.v.) 	limpiarse, lavarse
		to wash oneself, to clean oneself 
		mu-i:xpupu:wa (pres.) 
		mu-i:xpupu:h (pret.) 
		mu-i:xpupu:h-tuk (perf.)

(SD) i:xpupuyu-t   				ciego, choco
		blind, one-eyed
		cf. i:x "eye", pupuyu-t "blind"
		CN ixpopoyotl (Sim.)

(C)  i:xpupuyu:tsin    			gallina ciega (un gusano (?), plaga para animales
		cutworm (?)
		cf. i:xpupuyu-t "blind", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) i:xpuya:wi (i.v.)  			marearse, atarantarse
		to be faint, dizzy, bumbfounded
		i:xpuya:wi (pres.)
		i:xpuya:wi-k (pret.) n-i:xpuya:wi-k "I got dizzy"
		i:xpuya:h-tuk (perf.) (?) 
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face'
		CN cf. ixpoyaua (Sim.) "oscurecer, deslumbrar"

(SD) i:xsaka-t  			arroz (en su planta)
		rice, still on stalk
		-i:xsaka-w (poss.) nu-i:xsaka-w "my rice" 
		cf. i:x "grain, seed", saka-t "grass"

(SD) i:xtakayu-t   			piojillo, piojo de gallina 
		mite (chicken louse)
		cf. (C) istak-atime-t

(C) i:xtapachua (t.v., r.v.)   		embrocar
		to turn over, to upset, to turn upside-down
		i:xtapachua (pres.)
		i:xtapachuh (pret.) ni-k-i:xtapachuh "I turned it over", 
		ni-mu-i:xtapachuh "I got turned over"
		i:xtapachuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'facae', tapach "shell"
		CN cf. ixtlapach- (Mol.) "boca abajo",  ixtapachcuepa (Mol.) "embrocar"
(SD) i:xtapachua
		i:xtapachuh (pret.)
		i:xtapacih-tuk (perf.)

(SD) i:xtatsini (i.v., incorp.)   		pringar, rodar (de granos)
		for grain to roll, scatter
		i:xtatsini (pres.)
		i:xtatsini-k (pret.)
		i:xtatsin-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "grain", (C) tatsi:ni "to scatter, sprinkle"
		CN cf. ixtlatzinia (Sim.) "abofetearse a si mismo"

(C) i:xta:wak   			sabana (prado de zacatal)
		savannah, meadow
		cf. i:x- 'cara'
		CN ixtlauaca(n) (Sim.) "lugar desierto", ixtlauatl (Sim.) "sabana, tierra plana, llanura"
(SD) i:xta:wak

(C) i:xta wi:pta  			pasado, pasado mañana (en tres días)
		in three days
		cf. wi:pta "day after tomorrow"

(C) i:xte:mblor   			sensonte bobo, sinsonte bobo, pajaro bobo
		bird sp., bird like mocking bird, walks as though it cannot see the road, flies very 				slow, very stupid
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', Sp. temblor

(C) i:xte:miki (t.v.)  			soñar
		to dream (something)
		i:xte:miki (pres.) ni-k-i:xte:miki "I dream it" (nigixte:migiʔ)
		i:xte:mik (pret.)
		i:xte:mik-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', te:miki "to dream"
		cf. (SD) te:miki

(C) -i:xtempan  			enfrente de otro, delante de otro
		in front of someone else
		cf. i:x- 'face', -tempan "edge, border"

(SD) i:xtemu:yu-t  			chispa
		spark
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', "grain", temu:yu-t "spark"

(C) i:xtetsi:l-nah (adj.)   		cara tiesa
		rigid faced, stiff-faced
		cf. i:x- 'face'
		CN cf. tetziloa (Sim.) "torcer mucho"

(SD) i:xtia (t.v.)  			sacar
		to take out, to remove, to get (out)
		i:xtia (pres.)
		i:xtih (pret.) ti-k-i:xtih-ke-t "we got it out"
		i:xtih-tuk (perf.)
		xi-nech-i:xti "get me out!"
		cf. ki:sa "to leave", -tia 'caus.'
		cf. (C) ki:xtia
		(note: this verb historically had an initial k, which was lost when it was analogically 			equated with k- 'third pers. sg. pronominal object' prefix.)

(SD) i:xtia se: tiroh (t.v.)   		disparar, tirar
		to shoot
		cf. i:xtia "to get out", se: "one", Sp.tiro "shot"

(SD) i:xtilia (t.v.)  			quitar algo a alguien
		to take something away from someone
		i:xtilia (pres.)
		i:xtilih (pret.) k-i:xtilih-ke-t "they took it away from him"
		i:xtilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) ki:xtilia

(C) i:xtuhtulu    			tulanco (elote que no se ha llenado bien)
		an ear of corn that has not developed well
		ihi:xtuhtulu (pl.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', (?) perhaps tul- 'yellow'

(C) i:xtu:ka (t.v., r.v., incorp.)  	meter(se)
		to insert, to put in, to stick in
		i:xtu:ka (pres.) ni-k-i:xtu:ka  "I insert it", ni-mu-i:xtu:ka "I interject, I stick myself in"
		i:xtu:ka-k (pret.) ni-k-i:xtu:ka-k "I stuck it in" (nigixtu:gak)
		i:xtu:ka-tuk (perf.) ni-mu-i:xtu:ka-tuk "I inserted myself" (nim(u)wixtu:gatuk)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', tu:ka "to plant, bury"
		CN cf. ixtoca (Mol.) "poner correas a los cacales con punzon" 
(SD) i:xtu:ka

(C) i:xtukpe:wa (t.v.)   		empujar
		to push, to shove
		i:xtukpe:wa (pres.)  ni-k-i:xtukpe:wa "I push it"
		i:xtukpe:h (pret.)
		i:xtukpe:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) i:xtu:ka "to insert", pe:wa "to begin"       
		cf. (SD) i:xtupewa

(C) mu-i:xtu:na (r.v.)  			tardarse, dilatarse
		to be late, to delay
		mu-i:xtu:na (pres.) mu-i:xtu:na "(he) is late, he delays" (m(u)wixtu:naʔ)
		mu-i:xtu:na-k (pret.)
		mu-i:xtu:na-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. (?) i:x- "eye", 'face', (?) tu:nal "sun"
		cf. (SD) i:xtu:na

(SD) i:xtu:na (i.v.)  			tardarse
		to be late
		i:xtu:na (pres.) n-i:xtu:na "I am late" (nixtu:naʔ) 
		i:xtu:na-k (pret.)
		i:xtu:na-tuk (perf.) (?)
		maka x-i:xtu:na "don't be late!"
		cf. (?) i:x "eye", 'face', (?) tu:nal "sun"
		cf. (C) mu-i:xtu:na 

(SD) i:xtupewa   			empujar, rempujar
		to push, to shove
		i:xtupewa (pres.)
		i:xtupew (pret.) ni-k-i:xtupew "I pushed it" nigixtupeW] 
		i:xtupew-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) i:xtukpe:wa

(SD) i:xturnu   			bizco
		cross-eyed, cock-eyed
		cf. i:x "eye", Sp. turno

(C) i:xtsaya:na (t.v., incorp.)   	destrozar, rajar
		to split, to break up
		i:xtsaya:na (pres.)
		i:xtsaya:n (pret.)
		i:xtsaya:n-tuk  (perf.) ni-k-i:xtsaya:n-tuk "I have split it" 
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', tsaya:na "to split"
(SD) i:xtsaya:na
		cf. i:x-tsaya:ni (i.v.) "to split"

(SD) i:xtsaya:ni (i.v.)   		rajarse, romperse, abrirse
		to split, to break, to open 
		i:xtsaya:ni (pres.)
		i:xtsaya:n(-ki) (pret.)
		i:xtsaya:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x- 'face', tsaya:na (t.v.) "to spit"

(SD) i:xtsuhtsukul 			chiboludo, borrunoso, garrasposo (no parejo) 
		bumpy, knotty, uneven
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', tsukul "bump", i:x-tsukul "knot"
		cf. (C) i:xtsuhtukul-nah

(C) i:xtsuhtsukul-nah   		chiboloso, borrunoso, garrasposo
		knotty, bumpy
		cf. (SD) i:x-tsuhtsukul,  -nah 'adj.'

(C) -i:xtsuhtsun-yu 			pestanas, cejas (uxtsuhtsuŋyuʔ)
		eyelashes, eyebrows
		cf. i:x "eye", -tsuhtsun-yu "eyelashes"
		CN cf. ixtzontli (Sim.)
(SD) -i:xtsuhtsun-yu
		-i:xtsuhtsun-yu (poss.) nu-i:xtsuhtsun-yu "my eyelashes, my eyebrows"    
		cf. -i:xtsun-yu (singular, not very common)

(SD) -i:xtsun-yu  			pestana, ceja
		singular of -i:xtsuhtsun-yu (singular is rare)

(C) i:xtsukul  				nudo (de palo) 
		knot (in wood)
		cf. i:x "eye", tsukul "lump, bump" 
(SD) -i:xtsukul-yu
		cf. -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) i-xu:chi-yu  			floreado, flor (?) 
		flowered, flower (?)
		cf. i- 'its', xu:chi-t "flower", -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) i:xuhxupil-nah, i:x(x)uhxupil-nah (adj.)	hinchado de los ojos, arrugado de la cara
		with swollen eyes, wrinkled face
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face'

(C) ixuku-masa:-t   			pepenance (árbol)
		tree sp. small, like sour nance
		ixukumasa:-tsin "small pepenance
		cf. i- 'its', xuku-t "hogplum", masa:-t "deer" (literally "deer's hogplum")

(SD) i:xwahlaka   		órgano, pitajaya (pitahaya) de monte (ixwahlagapitahayaʔ)
		 cactus, organ cactus (?)
		cf. (?) i:x "eye", 'face', "seeds"

(C) i:xwa:ki (i.v.)  			resecarse, secarse
		to dry out, to dry up
		i:xwa:ki (pres.) i:xwa:ki "it's drying up" (ixwa:giʔ) 
		i:xwa:ki-k (pret.)
		i:xwa:ki-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face', wa:ki "to dry"
		CN cf. ixwacqui (Sim.) "un poco seco" 
(SD) i:xwa:ki (i.v.)  	secarse, cicatrizarse 
		to dry (up), to form a scar

(C) i:xwehwetska (i.v., redup.)  	sonreirse to smile
		i:xwehwetska (pres.) n-i:xwehwetska "I smile" 
		i:xwehwetska-k (pret.)
		i:xwehwetska-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x- 'face', wetska "to laugh"
		CN ixuetzca (Sim.) "sonreir"
		
(C) i:xweyak  				carón, cara larga
		long-faced, big-faced 
		cf. i:x- 'face', weyak "long"
		CN ixueyac (Sim.) "cara alargada aguile^a"

(C) i:xwi (i.v.)  			llenarse, satisfacerse (de comida), hartarse 
		to be full (of food)
		i:xwi (pres.)
		i:xwi-k (pret.)  n-i:xwi-k "I got full"
		i:xwi-tuk (perf.)
		CN ixui (Sim.) "comer hasta saciarse"; (i)xwi (Car.) "hartarse"
(SD) i:xwi

(C) -ixwiyu  				nieto, nieta
		grandchild
		nu-ixwiyu "my grandchild" 
		CN ixwuiuhtli (Sim.)
(SD) -ixwiyu

(C) i:xxuhxupil-nah 	"with swollen eyes, wrinkled face"; see i:xuhxupil-nah

(C) i:xyu:lkwi (t.v., r.v.)  		revivir(se), resucitar
		to revive, to resuscitate
		i:xyu:lkwi  (pres.) mu-i:xyu:lkwi "(he) come back to life, (he) is reviving"
		i:xyu:lkwih (pret.)
		i:xyu:lkwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. i:x "eye", 'face", yu:l- "heart", kwi "to take, grab"
		cf. (SD) yu:lkwi

(C) iyakwah-tal  			madre de cacaos, lugar de madre de cacaos
		grove of "mother-of-cacao" trees
		cf. iyahkwawi-t "madre-de-cacao" tree, -ta(:)l 'place of'

(C) iyahkwawi-t  			madre cacao, madre de cacao (árbol)
		tree sp., large, called "mother-of-cacao", used to shade coffee trees 
		cf. i- 'its', kwawi-t "tree", and perhaps yah- an arcahic form for "mother", cf.  				Mecayapan -yeʔ "mother", a UtoAztecan etymon.

(C) iyak-mi:ku    	guaco (raíz móntes, medicinal para curar diarrea o mal del estómago
		wild root, medicinal, used for diarrhea and bad stomach
		cf. i- 'its', yak- "nose", Sp. mico, literally "monkey's nose"

(Tacuba) iya-t  	tabaco
		tobacco
(Comazahua, Jicalapa) iya-t iya-t  	puro
		cigar

(C) iya:w    			agüera (de agüerearse, queda agua)
		watery (?)
		cf. i- 'its', a:-t "water", -w 'poss.' (etymological structure = i-a:-w)

(C) iya:wtsi:ka-t 		arriadora, garriadora (hormiga, sólo hay en invierno) 						(iya:Wtsi:gat)
		ant sp., a driver ant that appears only in winter
		cf. iya:w "agüera" (watery), tsi:ka-t "ant"

(C) iya:yu  caldo
		stew, soup
		cf. i- 'its', a:-t "water", -yu 'intimate poss.' 
(SD) iya:yu  sopa

(SD) iya:yu koko    		agua de coco iya:yu kokoʔ) 
		coconut juice
		cf. iya:yu "soup, juice"; Sp. coco "coconut"

(SD) iyuh -tsunkal  		raya de pelo
		part in hair
		iyuh nu-tsunkal "my (hair) part"
		cf. i- 'its', uh-ti "road", -tsunkal "hair"
		cf. -uh -tsunkal 

K

(C) ka 				que (pronombre relativo, marcador de complemento) 
					which, that (relative pronoun, complementizer)
		CN cf. ac (Mol.); PN *a:k
		cf. (SD) ka(h)
	
(C) ka  			a, en, ¿dónde?, donde 
		to, in, at, where, where?
		cf. ka -chan "at (someone's house/place)" 
		cf. ka-ihtik "inside"
		cf. ka-i:xpan "in front of, before"
		cf. ka i-teputs "backwards, opposite" 
		cf. ka ne:pa "(over) there"
		cf. ka ni:kan "(over) here"
		cf. katani "below"
		cf. ka tatwi "in the early morning"
		cf. ka -yehkan "to the right"
(SD) ka
		cf. ka -chan "at (someone's house/place)" 
		cf. ka-ka:ri:tah "the coast"
		cf. ka-ikahku "sky, heaven" 
		cf. ka -ipan "behind"
		cf. ka -itan "below"
		cf. ka ne: "(over) there"
		cf. ka nikan "(over) here" 
		cf. katani "below, to the south" 
		cf. ka tayuwa "at night"
	
(C) ka:  			quien, ¿quién?
		who, who?
		ka: taha "¿Quién sos vos? (¿Quién eres?)”
		ka: wa:lah  "who came?" 
		ka: uni "who is it, who are you?" (uni 'demonstrative', "that", cf. (SD) kah uni "who 			are you?")
		ka:met (pl.) "who? (pl.)" (¿quiénes?)
		cf. ka ke:n "who knows"	
		CN aquin (Mol.)
		cf. (SD) kah
	
(C) kabal (adj., adv.)  		cabal (justo, exacto, completo)
		just, exact, full, complete
		Sp. cabal
	
(SD) ka:bayuh  		caballo, bestia, mula, burro
		horse, mule, donkey, beast of burden 
		kahka:bayuh (pl.)
		Sp. caballo
		cf. (C) ka:wayu

(C) ka:bi:lduh  		alcaldía (precidencia municipal) 
		city hall, town hall
		Sp. cabildo
(SD) ka:bi:lduh
	
(SD) ka:bo(h)  		cabo
		handle
		Sp. cabo

(C) ka:bra  			cabro, cabra  (ka:braʔ)
		goat
		kahka:bra (pl.)
		Sp. cabra
(SD) ka:brah; ka:bruh  	cabra; cabro
		goat (female and male goat, respectively)
		Sp. cabra, cabro

(C) ka:chamblaka  		hondilla
		sling shot
		Sp. cachamblaca

(C) ka  -chan  			a donde (alguien), a la casa de alguien 
		to or at somebody's (house/place)
		ka i-chan "at whose (house)?" (¿Dónde quién?)
		ka nu-chan "at my house, at my place" (a donde yo) 
		cf. ka "to, at", -chan "house"
		CN cf. ka(n) "where"  
(SD) ka -chan

(C) kachimbu  		pipa (para fumar), cachimba (kachimbuʔ)
		pipe (for smoking)
		kahkachimbu (pl.)
		Sp. cachimbo

(SD) -kachoh  			cacho, cuerno
		horn
		i-kachoh turuh  	cow's horn Sp. cacho

(C) kada  			cada
		each
		Sp. cada
(SD)  kadeho(h)   		cadejo (ser sobrenatural, lobo o perro pastor aleman que guia o 					ataca a los borrachos)
		a supernatural wolf or german shepherd that either guides or attacks drunks

(SD) kadena  			cadena
		chain
		Sp. cadena

(C) ka-diya we:l  		¿cuál es? 
		which one is it? 
		ka-diya we:l ti-k-a:n-ki "which one did you take?"

(SD) kah, ka  			que (pronombre relativo, markador de complento) 
		that, which (relative pronoun, complementizer)
		cf. (C) ka

(SD) kah 			quien, ¿quién? (gah)
		who, who?
		kah taha "Who are you?" (¿quién sos vos?)
		kah-uni "who" (cf. uni 'demonstrativo' "that") (gahuniʔ)
		kah wa:lah "Who came?"
		CN cf. ac (Mol.)
		cf. (C) ka:; PN *a:k

(SD) -kahah-yu  		ataúd
		coffin, casket
		i-kahah-yu "her coffin"
		Sp. caja "box", -yu 'intimate poss.' 
		(C) ka:hú:n

(SD) kahiya(h)  		fósforo (cerillo)
		match
		Sp. cajilla

(C) kahkál 			caserío
		village
(SD) kahkal

(SD) kahkani (i.v. (?))  	ventilar, estar ventilando, soplar, darle brisa
		to winnow, to fan, to blow
		kahkani (pres.)
		kahkan-ki (pret.)
		kahkan-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ahka:na (t.v.)

(C) kahka:wa (t.v., redup.)  	dejar
		to leave, to abandon
		kahka:wa (pres.)
		kahka:w (pret.)  ni-k-kahka:w "I left it" (nigahka:W)
		kahka:w-tuk (pert.)
		xi-nech-kahka:wa  "leave me!" (¡dejame!)
		cf. ka:wa "to leave"
		CN cf. cacaua (Sim.) "descansar, dejar, abandonar"
		cf. (SD) ahkawa

(SD) -kahku  			alto, trepado
		high, up
		i-kahku  "its height (?)" ("su trepado")
		cf. ahku "up"

(SD) kahkuwik  		norte, al norte, arriba
		north, to(ward) the north, up(ward)
		cf. ka "to", ahku "up", (?) -ik "until, up to, therefore"

(C) ka:hó:n  			cajón
		box, chest
		Sp. cajón

(C) ka:hú:n, kahó:n 		ataúd 
		coffin, casket
		Sp. cajon "box, chest" 
		cf. (SD) -kahah-yu

(SD) kahwelah  		cajuelita, pétalo de flor
		flower petal
		Sp. cajuela

(SD) ka-ga:ri:tah  		costa, la costa (ga-ga:ri:tah)
		the coast
		cf. ka "to", Sp. garita "guard booth"

(C) ka-ihtik  			adentro
		inside
		cf. ka "in", ihtik "internal, inside"

(SD) ka-ikahku  		cielo
		sky, heaven
		cf. ka "in, at", i-kahku "high"

(SD) ka -ipan  			detrás
		behind
		ka nu-ipan "behind me"
		ka (i-)ipan ne me:sah "behind/under the table" 
		cf. ka "in, at", ipan "behind"

(SD) ka -itan  			debajo de
		under, underneith, beneith, below
		cf. katani "below, under"

(C) ka i-teputs  		al revés
		backwards, opposite
		cf. ka "in, at", i- 'its', -teputs "behind"

(C) ka -i:xpan  		delante de, enfrente de
		in front of, before
		ka nu-i:xpan "in front of me, before me"
		cf. ka "in, at", -i:xpan "before, in front of"

(C) ka:kah  			alguien  (ka:gah)
		someone, somebody
		CN cf. aca (Sim.)
		cf (SD) ahakah

(C) ka:ka:lu:tan  		San Julian (nombre de un pueblo)
		San Julian (a town name)
		cf. -tan 'place of'
		CN cf. cacalotl "cuervo"

(C) kakasua (t.v., r.v.)  	molestar(se), estar apenado, sofocar(se), saporar(se) 
		to be bothered, vexed, harrassed, troubled
		kakasua (pres.) nech-kakasua "it bothers me", mu-kakasua "he is troubled"   
		kakasuh (pret.)
		kakasuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (SD) mu-kakasua "to cackle"

(SD) mu-kakasua (r.v.)  	cacarear (de animales)
		to cackle, to crow (of animales only)
		mu-kakasua (pres.)
		mu-kakasuh, mu-kakasih (pret.)
		mu-kakasuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) kakasua "to bother, be bothered"

(C) mu-kakasuh-tuk (adj.) 	apenado
		bothered, troubled
		cf. kakasua "to bother, be bothered, -tuk 'perf.'

(C) kakawana 			lagartija (clase de)
		lizard sp. (brown, red chest)
(SD) ka:kawani 		lagartija (clase de)
		lizard sp. (green, very bright colored) 
		kahka:kawani (pl.)

(C) kakawa-t  			cacao (árbol, fruta)
		cacao (fruit, tree)
		-kakaw (poss.) nu-kakaw "my cacao" (nukakaW) 
		kahkakawat (pl.)
		CN cacauatl (Sim.)
(SD) kakawa-t  (gagawat)

(C) kakawatal  		cacaos, cacaguatal, cacaotal
		cacao trees, cacao grove, cacao orchard 
		cf. kakawa-t "cacao", -ta(:)l; 'place of'

(SD) kakax  			cacaste, cacaxte (caja de madera para cargar cosas) (gagax)
		wooden carrying crate
		kahkakax (pl.)
		CN cf. cacaxtli (Mol.) "escalerillas de tablas para llevar algo acuestas, el tameme"
		cf. (C) taku:kal "'cacaxte' box"
(SD) -kakax-yu 	cacaste de animal, esqueleto de animal
		animal skeleton, dried up remains of a dead animal
		i-kakax-yu "its skeleton"
		cf. kakax "wooden carrying crate"

(C) ka ke:n  			¿quién sabe?, a saber, saber  (ka gé: ŋ)
		who knows?, it's unknown, I don't know, it remains to be seen
		cf. ka "who", ke:n "how"

(SD) ka ke:ski  	¿quánto vale? (ga ge:skiʔ)
		how much does it cost?
		cf. ka "that, which", ke:ski "how much, how many"

(C) ka:ki  			oir, escuchar
		to hear, to listen
		ka:ki (pres.)  ni-k-ka:ki "I hear it" (niga:giʔ)
		ka:k (pret.)
		ka:k-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-kaki "to listen"
		CN kaki (Car.); PN kaki
(SD) kaki

(C) kak-ti  			caite, huarache (sandalia) 
		sandal
		-kak (poss.)  nu-kak "my sandal(s)" 
		CN kaktli (Car.)
(SD) kak-ti
		kahkakti (pl.) (gahgaktiʔ)

(C) kal  			casa
		house
		(note: sometimes pronounced ka:l) -kal (poss.) nu-kal "my house" 
		kahkál (pl.)
		CN kalli (Car.)
(SD) kal

(SD) kalabó:s  		calabóz (clase de machete) 
		a kind of machete
		Sp. calaboz

(C) kalaki (i.v.)  		entrar
		to enter, to go in 
		kalaki (pres.)
		kalak (pret.)  ni-kalak "I entered" (nigalak)
		kalak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kalaki tu:nal "for the sun to set"
		cf. kal- "house"
		CN calaqui (Sim.), cf. cal- "house", aqui "to enter" 
		(SD) kalaki
		xi-kalaki "come in!" (pase adelante!) (xigalagiʔ)

(C) kalaki tu:nal  		ponerse el sol 
		for the sun to set
		kalak tu:nal  "the sun set, went down"
(SD) kalaki tu:nal

(C) kalaktia (t.v.)  		dentrar, meter
		to bring in, to take in, to insert, to put in 
		kalaktia (pres.)
		kalaktih (pret.)
		kalaktih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-kalaktia "to be bringing things in" 
		cf. kalaki "to enter", -tia 'caus.'
(SD) kalaktia
		nik-kalaktia "I put it in" (nigalaktiyaʔ)

(SD) ka:la:ma:l  		a la mar
		to the sea
		cf. ka "to", Sp. a la mar
(SD) kalambre(h)  		calambre
		cramp
		Sp. calambre
(C) kala:tata (i.v.)  		requemarse (de plantas, siembras) to parch, to sunburn (of 						plants)
		kala:tata (pres.)
		kala:tata-k (pret.)
		kala:tata-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tata "to burn", (?) kal "house", a:-t "water")

(SD) kalduh  			caldo, sopa
		soup, stew
		Sp. caldo

(SD) kal-ihtik  		adentro 
		inside
		nu-kal-ihtik "inside of me"
		cf. kal "house", ihti-k "inside" 
		CN kal-iʔtik (Car.)

(C) kalwech  			hollín
		soot
		cf. kal "house", (?) wech(-tik) "finely ground"
		CN calcuechtli (Sim.)

(C) kalne:wi  			caracolito (sale antes de caerse el invierno)
		snail sp., small, appears just before the rainy season begins 
		cf. (?) kal "house"
		CN cf. (?) calneuiantli (Mol.) "eredad del comun"

(C) kalpinteroh  		carpintero, aratesano
		carpinter, artisan
		Sp. carpintero

(SD) kalpu:l  			capitana de cofradía (galpú:l)
		female "captain" of the confraternity
		cf. kal "house"
		CN cf. calpolli (Mol.) "barrio, casa grande (vecino)"; -pol 'augmentative' 

(SD) kalsetín  			calcetín
		sock
		Sp. calcetin 

(C) mu-kaltapa:na (r.v., incorp.)  	abrir la cueva (el cangrejo)
		(for a crab) to open a cave, hole 
		mu-kaltapa:na (pres.)
		mu-kaltapa:n (pret.) 
		mu-kaltapa:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kal "house", tapa:na "to break" 
		cf. (C) mu-kaltapa:na "to swarm"

(SD) mu-kaltapa:na (r.v., incorp.)  	alborotar (p.ej. un hormiguero, un abejero)
		to swarm
		cf. (C) mu-kaltapa:na "(for a crab) to open a cave or hole"

(C) mu-kaltsakwa (r.v., incorp.)   	encerrarse
		to enclose oneself, to be enclosed
		mu-kaltsakwa (pres.)
		mu-kaltsak (pret.)
		mu-kaltsak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kal "house", tsakwa "to close"
		CN caltzaqua (Sim.) "refugiarse, encerrarse en una casa"

(C) kaltsunti  				calsonte (tijera del techo)
		roof pole (?)
		kahkaltsunti (pl.) cf. kal "house" tsun-ti "head, point"
(SD) kaltsunti
		-kaltsunti (poss.) nu-kaltsunti "my house pole" (nugaltsuntiʔ)

(C) -kamachal  			quijada
		jaw
		i-kamachal "his/her/its jaw"
		cf. (?) kamak "cheek" 
		CN camachalli (Sim.)
(SD) -ka:machal 
		nu-ka:machal "my jaw" (nuga:machal)

(SD) kamachi:l-tik  			mejillas rojas
		red cheeks, rosy-cheeked
		cf. kamak "cheek", chi:l-tik "red"

(SD) mu-ka:machulua (r.v.)  		bostezar
		to yawn
		mu-ka:machulua (pres.)
		mu-ka:machuluh (pret.)
		mu-ka:machuluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ka:machal "jaw"
		CN camachaloa (Mol.) "abrir mucho la boca" 
		cf. (C) ahkamacha:lua

(C) -ka:mah-tsin  			cuna
		cradle
		i-ka:mahtsin "his/her cradle"
		Sp. cama "bed", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) -kamak  				mejilla, cachete
		cheek
		i-kamak "his/her cheek"
		i-kahkamak (pl.) "his/her cheeks" 
		CN cf. kamatl (Car.) "boca"
(SD) -kamak

(C) kamalu-t  				camalote (un zacatón grueso) 
		grass sp., big, thick
		kahkamalut (pl.)

(C) kamanantsin  			camanance, hoyuelo
		dimple
		cf. kamak "cheek", (?) na(:)n-tsin "nance, mother, lady" -tsin 'diminutive'
(SD) kamanantsin

(C) kama:wak  (adj.)    	camagua (p. ej., un elote verde entre una milpa seca, un 						palo que no se ha secado, maíz tierno) 
		not dried out (e.g., a green ear of corn in a dry cornfield, a tree which has not dried 			out, tender corn)
		CN cf. camauac (Sim.) "yellow, ripe"
(SD) ka:mawak

(C) kamaxayal  			barbudo
		bearded
		cf. (?) kamak "cheek"

(C) ka:met  				¿quiénes?
		who? (pl.)
		CN cf. aquique (Sim.)

(SD) kamikoneho(h)  			camiconejo (un zacate fino)
		grass sp., thin
		Sp. camiconejo (comeconejo (?))

(SD) kamioneta(h)  			camioneta (camión de pasaje)
		bus
		Sp. camioneta

(SD) kampanah  			campana
		bell
		Sp. campana

(SD) kampanamál  			quiebrapalito (mantis religiosa (?)) 
		"walking-stick" insect (praying mantis (?))
		Sp. (?) campana mal

(C) kamuh  				yuca
		sweet manioc
		-kamuh (poss.) nu-kamuh "my sweet manioc" 
		kahkamuh (pl.)
		cf. chi:ltik kamuh "camote"
		CN camotli (Sim.) "batata (camote)"
(SD) kamuh

(SD) kamu:sa  			pelusa, algodón de ave
		down, fuzz
		Sp. gamuza

(C) ka:n  				¿dónde?
		where?
		ka:n nemi  "Where is it?"
		cf. ka:nka "where to?" (¿adónde?)
		CN ka:n (Car.); PN *ka:n
(SD) ka:n

(C) kanah  				(aparece con negación para "no hay") 
		(appears with negation for "there is/are not") 
		ka kanah kal "who knows where" (a saber donde) 
		a:xa:n tesu kanah mih-mix-ti		today no there-are PL-cloud-ABSOL "there 				aren't any clouds today"
		tesu kanah tamal  "there are no tortillas"

(SD) ka:nah  				cana  (ka:nah)
		grey hair

(C) kande:lah  				candela
		candle, light
		Sp. candela

(SD) ka ne:  				por allá  (gané: ʔ)
		(over) there
		cf. (C) ka ne:pa

(C) ka ne:pa  				por allá (ga-ne:paʔ)
		(over) there
		cf. (SD) ka ne:

(C) ka ni:kan  			por aquí (ga-ni:gaŋ)
		(over) here
(SD) ka nikan

(SD) kanikluh  		canícula (kanikluh)
		dry spell in the rainy season, "dog days" 
		canícula

(C) ka:nka  			¿adonde? (ka:ngaʔ)
		where to?
		ka:nka tiyu "where are you going?"
		cf. ka:n "where", ka "to"
(SD) ka:nka

(SD) kantíl  			cantil (culebra) (kantíl)
		snake sp., said to have two heads
		Sp. cantil

(SD) kantón  			canton (kantón)
		village outside of municipal center
		Sp. cantón

(SD) kanuwah  		canoa, lancha  (ganuwah)
		canoe
		Sp. (?) canoa

(Nahuizalco)	kanyax  	caña
		(sugar)cane
		Sp. cañas

(SD) kapár, -chiwa  		capar, castrar
		to castrate
		Sp. capar

(C) kapa:xua (t.v.)  		aflojar
		to loosen
		kapa:xua (pres.) ki-kapa:xua "I'm loosening it" 
		kapa:xuh (pret.) ni-k-kapa:xuh "I loosened it" 
		kapa:xuh-tuk (perf.) 
		xi-k-kapa:xu  "loosen it!" (chikapa:xuʔ)
		cf. ta-kapa:xua "to be loosening"
		CN cf. capaxtic (Sol.) "cosa sosa"

(SD) ka peyna  		temprano
		early
		cf. ka "in", peyna "early"
		CN cf. payna (Mol.) "correr ligeramente"

(S) kapiya(h)  			capilla
		chapel
		Sp. capilla

(SD) kapul-a:ma-t  		capulamate (árbol)
		tree sp., large, like an "amate" fig tree, with long cords or vines
		kahkapula:mat (pl.)
		cf. kapul-in "choke cherry", a:ma-t "amate" fig tree

(C) kapul-in  			capulín
		tree sp., a fruit; choke cherry, bird-cherry (?)
		-kapulin (poss.) nu-kapulin "my bird-cherry" 
		CN kapolin (Car.)
(SD) kapulin (gapuliŋ)

(SD) ka:ra(h)  			cara
		face
		-ka:ra(h) (poss.) nu-ka:ra(h) "my face"
		Sp. cara

(SD) karakól  			caracol (karakól)
		snail
		Sp. caracol

(SD) kargadores  		varones, cargadores de semana santa 
		bearers or porters in Holy Week
		Sp. cargadores

(C) ka:rgah  			carga (de lena)
		load (of firewood) 
		kahka:rgah (pl.) 
		Sp. carga
(SD) ka:rgah

(C) ka:roh  			caro 
		expensive
		Sp. caro

(SD) karretah  			carreta (karretah) 
		cart
		Sp. carreta

(SD) kasi  			casi
		almost
		Sp. casi

(C) ka:soh  			caso, atención
		attention
		ki-chiwa ka:soh "(he) pays attention to him" (le hace caso) 
		Sp. caso (cf. hacerle caso "to pay attention")

(SD) ka:soh  cuento  (ka:soh)
		story
		Sp. caso
		cf. (C) ka:suh

(SD) kastigar , -chiwa  	castigar
		to punish
		Sp. castigar

(C) kastiyah  			castilla, castellano (español)
		Castilian, Spanish
		Sp. castilla
(SD) kastiyah

(C) ka:suh  			cuento 
		story
		Sp. caso
		cf. (SD) ka:soh

(C) katani  			abajo 
		below
		cf. ka "in, at", itan "below"
(SD) katani 	abajo, al sur (gataniʔ)
		below, to the south

(C) ka tatwi  			en la madrugada, al amanecer
		in the early morning
		cf. ka "in", tatwi "to dawn"

(SD) ka tayuwa  		de noche, en la noche (gatayuwaʔ)
		cf. ka "in", tayuwa "at night"

(C) katka 			'imperfecto' (partícula), "antes" 
		'imperfective'  (particle), "before" ('used to' in tenseaspect constructions)
(SD) katka (gatka(ʔ))

(SD) katoliko(h)  		católico
		Catholic
		Sp. catolico

(SD) mu-kawa (r.v.)  			dejar de llorar
		to stop crying
		mu-kawa (pres.)
		mu-kaw-ki (pret.)
		mu-kaw-tuk (perf.)
		xi-mu-kawa "don't cry!" 
		cf. ahkawa "to leave" 
		CN cf. mo-ka:wa (Car.) "dejar, cesar"; mo-caua (Sim.) "acabar, detenerse,  				interrumperse"; PN *ka:wa "to leave, abandon"

(C) ka:wa:ni (i.v.)  			brillar, alumbrar
		to shine, to light, to illuminate
		ka:wa:ni (pres.)
		ka:wa:ni-k (pret.)
		ka:wa:n-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. cauani 

(C) ka:wayu  				caballo, bestia
		horse, beast of burden
		-ka:wayu (poss.) nu-ka:wayu "my horse" (nuka:wayuʔ) 
		kahka:wayu (pl.)
		Sp. caballo
		cf. (SD) ka:bayuh

(SD) ka:xani (i.v.)  			aflojar(se)
		to loosen, to get loose
		ka:xani (pres.)
		ka:xan(-ki), ka:xani-k (pret.)
		ka:xan-tuk (perf.)
		CN caxani (Sim.) "desatarse"; PN kaxa:ni 
		cf. (C) kaxa:nia (t.v.) "to loosen"

(C) kaxa:nia (t.v.)  			aflojar
		to loosen
		kaxa:nia (pres.)
		kaxa:nih (pret.) ti-k-kaxa:nih-ke-t-a "we already loosened it" (tikaxa:nihketaʔ)
		kaxa:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-kaxa:nia "to be loosening"
		CN caxania (Sim.) "desatar"; kaxania (UC) "aflojar lo atado" 
		cf. (SD) ka:xani (i.v.) "to loosen", ka:xantia (t.v.) "to loosen"

(SD) ka:xantia (t.v.)  			aflojar
		to loosen
		ka:xantia (pres.)
		ka:xantih (pret.)
		ka:xantih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ka:xani (i.v.) "to loosen", -tia 'caus.'
		cf. (C) kaxa:nia

(C) kaxa:n-tuk (adj.)  			flojo
		loose
		cf. kaxa:ni "to loosen", -tuk 'perf.'

(C) kaxa:wa (t.v.)  			rebajar, mermar, vaciar poco a poco, quitar un poco
		to reduce, to decrease, to take out a little
		kaxa:wa (pres.)
		kaxa:h-ki (pret.)
		kaxa:h-tuk (perf.)
		CN caxaua (Sim.) "disminuir, adelgazar"
(SD) ka:xawa
		ka:xaw-ki (pret.)
		ka:xaw-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-ka:xawa "to be taking some out"

(C) kaxi-t 				losa, cajete, sarten (traste de losa)
		clay dish, bowl
		-kax (poss.)  nu-kax "my bowl"
		kahkaxit (pl.)
		CN kaxitl (Car.) "vasija"
(SD) kaxi-t (gaxit)

(C) kayeh  				calle
		street
		Sp. calle
(SD) kayeh

(C) ka -yehkan  			a la derecha
		to the right
		ka nu-yehkan "to my right"
		cf. ka "in, to", -yehkan "alone, right"

(C) ke(:) (conj.)  			que, como
		that, which (conjunction)
		Sp. que

(C) kebrada  				quebrada
		ravine, gulch, canyon
		Sp. quebrada
(C, SD) kech- 				'pescuezo, cuello' (en palabras compuestas) 
		'neck' (in compounds)
		CN kechtli (Car.) "cuello, pescuezo"; PN kəch-

(C) kech-kupi:na (t.v., incorp.)  	arrancar la cabeza 
		to tear off the head
		kechkupi:na (pres.)
		kechkupi:n (pret.)
		kechkupi:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kech- 'neck', kupi:na "to tear out" 

(C) kech-kutu:na (t.v., incorp.)  	trozar, desnucar, cortar la cabeza (con cuchillo)
		to cut off the head (with a knife), to decapitate
		kechkutu:na (pres.)
		kechkutu:n (pret.) ni-kechkutu:n "I cut off (its) head" 
		kechkutu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kech- 'neck', kutu:na "to cut"
		CN kech-koto:na (Car.)
(SD) kech-kutu:na
		ni-kechkutu:n ne tihlan "I cut the chicken's head off" 
		ni-kechkutu:n ne ku:ke "I decapitated the iguana"

(C) -kechku:yu  			pescuezo, cuello, nuca
		neck
		nu-kechku:yu "my neck" (nugechku:yuʔ)
		cf. kech- 'neck', ku:yu "stock, stem, plant" 
		CN cf. kechtli (Car.); PN *kəch-
(SD) -kechku:yu

(C) -kechku:yu -mey  			muñeca (de la mano)
		wrist
		i-kechku:yu mu-mey "your wrist
		cf. -kechku:yu "neck", -mey "hand"
(SD) -kechku:yu -mey

(C) kechtanua (t.v.)  			llevar en el hombro
		to carry on one's shoulder
		kechtanua (pres.)
		kechtanuh  (pret.) ki-kechtanuh-a "he already carried it  (on his shoulder)"
		kechtanuh-tuk (perf.)
		xi-kechtanu "carry it (on your shoulder)!"
		cf. kech- 'neck'
		CN cf. quechtantli (Sim.) "cuello, pescuezo"
(SD) kechtanua

(SD) ke:hah  				queja
		complaint
		Sp. queja

(C) kehke:n aya 	 		"lo mismo da"
		it doesn't matter, it's (all) the same
		cf. ke:n "as, like", ke:n aya "the same as"

(C) mu-kehtsi:lua (r.v.)  		empinarse
		to stand on tiptoes
		mu-kehtsi:lua (pres.) ni-mu-kehtsi:lua "I'm standing on tiptoes"
		mu-kehtsi:luh (pret.)
		mu-kehtsi:luh-tuk (perf.)
		CN quetsiloa (Mol.) "ponerse de puntillas"

(C) kekchiwa (t.v., incorp. (?))  	componer, arreglar
		to fix, to put together
		kekchiwa (pres.)
		kekchih-ki (pret.) ni-kekchih-ki-ya "I already fixed it" (nigekchihkiyaʔ)
		kekchih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) k- 'third pers. sg. pron. object (cristalized)', (?) yek "good", chiwa "to do, 				make"
		CN ye:kchi:wa (Car.) "caoregir, arreglar, adornar"
(SD) kekchiwa
		kekchiw-ki (pret.)
		kekchiw-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-kekchiwa "to be fixing, to fix something"

(C) kekelutsa (t.v., r.v.)  		menear(se), mover(se), aflojar(se)
		to move, to shake (e.g. a table), to loosen
		kekelutsa (pres.) ni-k-kekelutsa "I move it" 
		ni-mu-kekelutsa "I'm moving"
		kekeluts-ki (pret.)
		kekeluts-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. queloni (Sim.) "desplazarse,  dislocarse, hablando de un hueso"
(SD) keke:lutsa
		xi-k-keke:lutsa "move it!"
		ni-mu-keke:luts-ki "I moved" (nimugege:luts-kiʔ)

(C) kekexke  				quequexque, quequesque (planta que pica)
		plant sp., with a wide leaf, its juice stings
		kehkekexke (pl.) (kehkekexkeʔ)
		CN cf. quequexquie (Mol.) "cosa que da comezón"' 
		cf. PN *kəxkia "to itch"
(SD) kekexke, kekex-ti 	quequexque, quequesque
		plant sp., juice stings
(SD) kekex-ti, kekexque  		quequexque, quequesque (gegextiʔ), (gegexkeʔ)
		plant sp., juice stings

(SD) ke:luna (t.v.)  			quebrar
		to break
		ke:luna (pres.)
		ke:lun(-ki) (pret.)
		ke:lun-tuk (perf.) 
		cf. ta-ke:luna "to be breaking"
		CN cf. queloni (Sim.) "desplazarse,  dislocarse, hablando de un hueso"   

(C) ke:man  				¿cuándo?, cuando
		when
		ke:man ti-wa:lah "when did you come?"
		cf. (?) ke:n "how", -man 'locative-temporal' suffix  
		CN ke:(m)man 
(SD) ke:man (ge:maŋ)
		cf. te: ke:man "never"

(C) ke:n  				¿cómo?, como (ke: ŋ)
		how
		ke:n ki-chih-ki "how did he do it?" 
		cf. ke:n ti-nemi "how are you?"
		CN ke:n (Car.); PN *ke:m 
(SD) ke:n (ge:ŋ)

(C) ke:n-a  				igual (ke:ŋaʔ) 
		equal, the same (as)
		cf. (?) ke:n "how"
		cf. (SD) ke:n-ake:n "equal, the same (as)"

(SD) ke:n-ake:n  			igual, igual como (gé:nagé:ŋ) 
		equal, the same as, like
		cf. (?) ke:n "how"
		cf. (C) ke:n-a

(C) ke:n aya  				igual, lo mismo
		it doesn't matter, the same
		kehke:n aya "it doesn't matter, it's all the same" (lo mismo da)
		cf. ke:n "as, like"

(C) ke:n ti-nemi  			¿qué tal?, ¿cómo estás?
		how are you?
		ke:n "how", ti-nemi "you are"
(SD) ke:n ti-nemi
(C) kene(h) (conj.)  			pues
		then, well
		cf. (SD) kieneh "thus"

(C) kenemeh (conj.)  			como, asi 
		whereas, so, since
		cf. (?) kene(h) "then"

(C) ke:nka  				¿por qué?  (ke: ŋgaʔ)
		why?
		ke:nka ti-ya:h-tuk "why have you come?"
(SD) ke:nka 	igual (ge(:)ŋgaʔ)
		the same

(C)  ke:ntamixiya:panu  		El Establo (nombre de una hacienda, antes llamado 							Paso de Canoa, el último paso del río)
		"The Stable" (name of an hacienda, formerly called "Canoe Passage", the last 				crossing of the river)
		cf. ke:n "how", tami "to end", a:-t "river", panu "to cross"

(C) -kere:spa  				chorcha, crespa
		crest (e.g. of a chicken)
		i-kere:spa "its crest, crop"
		Sp. crespa

(C) ke:ski  				¿cuánto?, ¿cuántos?
		how many, how much?
		ke:ski i-pati-w "how much does it cost?" (literally "how much is its price?")
		CN ke:ski (Car.); PN *ke:ski
(SD) ke:ski

(SD) ke:suh  				queso
		cheese
		Sp. queso

(SD) kektal  				la mano (saludo, apretón de manos)
		hand, handshake (in greetings, shake hands)
		ni-k-maka ketal "I give him my hand/I shake his hand"
		(also: ni-k-maka nu-mey "I give him my hand/ I shake his hand")
		Sp. que tal

(C) ketsa (t.v., r.v.)  			parar(se), levantar(se)
		to stand, to get up, to raise, to rise
		ketsa (pres.) ni-mu-ketsa "I stand", ni-k-ketsa "I  raise it, stand it, lift it" (nigetsaʔ)
		kets-ki (pret.)
		kets-tuk (perf.)
		xi-mu-ketsa "stand up, get up!"
		CN ketsa (Car.) "levantar"; PN *kəksa
(SD) ketsa

(SD) kieneh  				así (kiyeneh), (kyeneh)
		thus, in this way, so
		cf. kiunih "thus", ki(ya) "thus"
		cf. (C) kene(h) "then"

(C) kikinaka (i.v.)  			quejarse, pujar
		to complain
		kikinaka (pres.)
		kikinaka-k (pret.)
		kikinaka-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. kikinaka (Car.) "grunir, reganar, gemir con dolor" 
(SD) kikinaka
		ni-kikinaka-tuk "I have complained" (nigiginagatuk)

(C) kili-t  				chipilin
		plant sp., used as a condiment
		-kili-w (poss.)  nu-kili-w "my chipilin plant"
		CN kilitl (Car.) "verdura"

(C) kimichin  				ratón, rata
		mouse, rat
		kihkimichin (pl.)
		CN quimichin (Sim.)
(SD) kimichin 		ratón, rata, cachero (ratero, ladrón)
		mouse, rat, thief

(C) kimil  				carga, bulta, tercio
		load, bundle
		-kimil (poss.) nu-kimil "my load"
		cf. kimi:tsin "(small) load", -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN quimilli (Sim.) "cargas de mantas, mochila, paquete de vestidos" 

(C) kimilua (t.v.)  			envolver, (en)cobijar, envolver en cobija
		to wrap, to cover
		kimilua (pres.)
		kimiluh (pret.) ti-k-kimiluh-ke-t "we covered it" 
		kimiluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kimil "bundle"
		cf. ta-kimilua "to be wrapping"
		CN quimiloa (Sim.) "envolver, cubrir, vestir"
(SD) kimilua (t.v., r.v.) 	envolver(se), encobijar(se) 
		ni-k-kimilua "I wrap it up"
		ni-mu-kimilua "I cover myself up (with blankets)"

(C) kimi:tsin  				carga, bulta (pequeña)
		(small) load, bundle
		cf. kimil "load", -tsin 'diminutive' (?)
		
(C) kiniyah 				guineo (plátano) (kiniyah) 
		banana
		-kiniyah (poss.) nu-kiniyah "my banana" 
		Sp. guinea (guineo)
(SD) kiniyah (giniyah)

(C) kipi  				cicatriz (kipiʔ)
		scar
		-kipi (poss.) i-kipi "his scar" 
		i-kihkipi (pl.) "his scars"
		cf. (SD) pelech

(C) ki:sa (i.v.)  			salir
		to leave, to come out, to go out, to appear
		ki:sa (pres.) ni-ki:sa "I'm leaving"
		ki:s-ki (pret.)
		ki:s-tuk (perf.)
		CN ki:sa (Car.); PN *ki:sa
(SD) ki:sa

(C) kiunih  				así, así es
		thus, that's right
		cf. kieneh, kene(h) "thus"
		cf. kiunih-san "just that, that's good"
		cf. ki(ya) "thus", uni "that"
(SD) kiunih  (kiyunih), (kyunih)
		kiuniha "it doesn't matter, it's the same" (-(y)a "already")

(C) kiunih-san  			así no más
		just that and no more
		cf. kiunih "thus", -san "only"
(SD) kiunih-san

(C) ki:xtia (also i:xtia) (t.v.)  		sacar
		to take out, to take away, to remove, to get out
		ki:xtia (pres.)
		ki:xtih (pret.) ni-k-ki:xtih "I got it out" (nigi:xtih)
		ki:xtih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-ki:xtia "to be taking out"; ki:xtilia "to take something from someone"
		cf. ki:sa "to leave", -tia 'caus.'
		CN ki:xtia (Car.)
		cf. (SD) i:xtia

(C)  ki:xtilia (also: i:xtilia) (t.v., applic.)	quitarse algo a otra persona
		to take something from someone
		ki:xtilia (pres.)
		ki:xtilih (pret.) ti-k-ki:xtilih-ke-t "we take it from him" (tigi:xtilihket)
		ki:xtilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ki:xtia "to take out", -lia 'applic.'
		cf. (SD) i:xtilia

(C) kiya  				así
		thus, in this way
		kiya ki-chih-ki "that's how he did it"
		cf. (?) ki- "thus", -ya "already"
		cf. kieneh, kiunih "thus"
		CN cf. (?) quiye, quiyeua (Sim.) "apenas, hace poco tiempo"
		
(C) kiyahmul 			quiamol, guajmol, cuajmol (una raíz que echa espuma, que se 					usa para banarse, sirve para caspa)
		a root that makes a lot of foam,  used for bathing,  good for dandruff
(SD) kiyahmu:l

(SD) klabu(h)  			clavo 
		nail
		Sp. clavo
		cf. (C) kla:wus

(C) kla:wus  				clavo 
		nail
		Sp. clavos
		cf. (SD) klabu(h)

(SD) -kodoh-yu  			codo 
		elbow
		Sp. codo "elbow", -yu 'intimate poss.'

(SD) kofradia  			cofradia
		confraternity (religious organization) 
		Sp. cofradia

(SD) kohre(h)  			cofre
		chest, trunk, coffer
		Sp. cofre

(SD) kohtan  				monte, bosque (kohtaŋ)
		woods, the bush, uncleared land
		(note: some say kuhtan)
		kohkohtan (pl.)
		cf. kwawi-t "tree", -tan 'locative, under' 
		CN quauhtla (Mol.) "montana, bosque"
		cf. (C) kuhtan

(SD) kohtan kuyame-t  		tunco de monte, javalí 
		peccary
		cf. kohtan "woods", kuyame-t "pig"
		CN quauhtla coyametl (Mol.) "puerco montes" 
		cf. (C) ku(:)htan kuyamet;

(SD) ko:h-tik (adj.)  			gigante
		gigantic, very large
		cf. kwawi-t "tree", -ti-k 'adj.' 
		CN kwawtik (Car.) "grande"
		cf. (C) ku:htik "tall, high"

(SD) koko(h)  				coco
		coconut
		Sp. coco
		cf. (C) ku:ku(h)

(SD) -kolah-yu  			cola 
		tail
		i-kolah-yu "its tail"
		Sp. cola, -yu 'intimate poss.'

(SD) kolchón    			colchón (kolchoŋ) 
		mattress
		Sp. colchón

(SD) kolor, maka  			teñir
		to dye, to color
		cf. maka "to give", Sp. color

(SD) kombento(h)  			convento (kombento(h)) 
		convent
		Sp. convento

(SD) kombidar, -chiwa  		invitar
		to invite
		Sp. Convidar

(SD) kometa(h)  			cometa (estrella fugaz) 
		shooting star
		Sp. cometa

(SD) komo  				como
		as, how
		Sp. como

(SD) konchah  			concha
		shell
		-konchah-yu (poss.) i-konchah-yu "its shell" 
		Sp. concha

(SD) konehoh  			conejo
		rabbit
		kohkonehoh (pl.)
		Sp. conejo

(C) konfesar, mu-chiwa (r.v.)  	comulgar 
		to take communion
		Sp. confesar

(SD) kongah  				conga (pescado)
		fish sp. (small)
		Sp. conga

(C) conse:hoh  			consejo 
		advice
		Sp. consejo

(SD) korralero(h) 			arriero 
		mule-skinner
		Sp. corralero

(SD) korrea  				correa 
		leather strap
		Sp. correa

(SD) kostrón  				costra
		scab
		Sp. costrón

(SD) kosturar, -chiwa  		costurar 
		to sew
		Sp. costurar

(Ataco)  -kotón  			camisa
		shirt
		Sp. cotón

(SD) krer, -chiwa  			creer 
		to believe
		Sp. creer

(SD) kreyente(h)  			creyente 
		believer, religious person
		Sp. creyente

(SD) kri(y)adah, kri(y)aduh  		servienta, serviente; criada, criado 
		servant, maid
		Sp. criada, criado

(SD) krianksa  			crianza (kriaŋksa)
		up-bringing
		Sp. crianza

(C) kristianuh 				gente 
		people, person 
		Sp. cristiano
(SD) kristianuh

(SD) krus-el-senyór  			Cruz del Señor (una constelación) 
		a constellation (literally "the Lord's cross") 
		Sp. cruz del Senor
	
(SD) krusifikár, -chiwa  		crucificar
		to crucify
		Sp. crucificar

(C, SD) ku-  				'cabeza' (en palabras compuestas)
		'head' (in compounds)
		cf. kwa(h)- 'head'

(C, SD) ku-, ku:-, kuh-  		'palo, árbol, madera' (en palabras compuestas)
		'tree, wood' (in compounds)
		cf. kwawi-t "tree, wood"

(C) ku:biyuh  				nixpulo (conserva hecha de miel y de maiz molido y 						tostado)
		a preserve or candy made of honey and toasted ground corn
		Sp. (?) cubillo
	
(SD) kuchahkul  			gancho (de madera para almacenar o proteger cosas)
		a wooden hook for storing things or protecting them from small animals  
		kuhkuchahkal (pl.)
	
(C) kuchi (i.v.)  			dormir
		to sleep
		kuchi (pres.) ni-kuchi "I sleep" 
		kuch-ki (pret.)
		kuch-tuk (perf.)
		CN kochi (Car.); PN *kochi
(SD) kuchi
		
(C) kuchini  				dormilón
		sleepy head (someone who sleeps a lot) 
		cf. kuchi "to sleep", -ni 'agent'

(C) kuchisneki (i.v.)  			cabecearse, estar al punto de dormirse 
		to be falling asleep, nodding off to sleep
		cf. kuchi "to sleep", -s-neki 'desiderative'
	
(C) ku:chiyan  			caolote, cablote (árbol)
		tree sp., with thick trunk, a hard, black fruit, with bark used for diarrhea remedy
		cf. ku:- 'tree'
		cf. (SD) kwawulu-t
	
(C) ku:chi:yuh  			cuchillo
		knife
		Sp. cuchillo
(SD) ku:chi:yuh
	
(C) kuchte:ka (t.v.)  			adormecer, hacer dormir
		to put to sleep	
		kuchte:ka (pres.) ki-kuchte:ka "she's putting him to sleep" (gikuchte:gaʔ)
		kuchte:ka-k (pret.) (?)
		kuchte:ka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kuchi "to sleep", te:ka "to lay down" 
		CN cochteca (Sim.) "hacer dormir a un niño"
(SD) kuchteka

(C) -kuhkul  				anciano, viejito (término respetuoso) 
		old man (respectful term)
		tu-kuhkul "our grandfather"
		-kuhkulmet (pl.)
		CN cf. colli (Sim.) "abuelo, abuela", (?) cocolli (Sim.) "riña, disputa", cocolli (Sim.) 			"cargo confiado"
(Comazagua) -kuhkul 			viejo
		old man

(C) -kuhkul  			"mal espíritu" (espíritu diabólico, uno que miente; el coco)
		evil spirit, boogyman
		mu-kuhkul "your boogyman, your evil spirit (that haunts you) 
		cf. (C) -kuhkul "old man" 
(SD) -kuhkul      
(Nahuizalco) 	kuhkul  	demonio
		devil  

(C) mu-kuhkutila:na (r.v., redup.)  	estirarse 
		to stretch, to extend, to reach 
		mu-kuhkutila:na (pres.)
		mu-kuhkutila:n (pret.) 
		mu-kuhkutila:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kutila:na "to stretch"

(C) kuhku:tiya (i.v., redup.)  		cansarse, rendirse
		to get tired, exhausted
		kuhku:tiya (pres.) ni-kuhku:tiya "I get tired"
		kuhku:tiya-k (pret.)
		kuhku:tiya-tuk (perf.) ni-kuhku:tiya-tuk "I have gotten tired, I am exhausted"
		cf. (SD) ku:ti:ya

(C) kuhkutu:na (t.v., redup.)  		cortar en pedazos
		to cut into pieces
		ni-k-kuhkutu:n "I cut (pret.) it into pieces"
		cf. kutu:na "to cut (with a knife)
(SD) kuhkutu:na

(C) mu-kuhkuyulua (r.v., redup.)  	encogerse, acostarse encogido 
		to shrink, to shrink from
		cf. mu-kuyulua "to shrink"

(SD) kuhpala  				leña podrida (guhpalaʔ) 
		rotten firewood
		cf. kuh- 'wood', pala "old"
		cf. (C) ku:pala "rotten wood"

(C) ku(:)htan  				monte, bosque
		woods, the bush, uncleared land, brush, weeds 
		cf. kuh- 'tree', -tan 'locative, under'
		cf. (SD) kohtan

(C) ku(:)htan kuyame-t  		tunco de monte, javalí 
		peccary
		cf. ku(:)htan "woods", kuyame-t "pig"
		cf. (SD) kohtan kuyame-t

(C) ku:h-tik  				alto, crecido (grande) (de milpa, palo, hombre)
		tall, high (of corn, trees, men, etc.)
		cf. ku:h- 'tree', -ti-k 'adj.'
		CN kwawtik (Car.)
		cf. (SD) ko:htik "gigantic"

(C) ku:kah  				cuca, cucaracha
		cockroach
		Sp. cuca
		cf. ku:kara:chah "cockroach"
(SD) ku:ka(h)

(C) ku:kara:chah  			cucaracha
		cockroach
		Sp. cucaracha
		cf. ku:kah

(SD) ku:ke  				iguana, garrobo, guexpo (gu:geʔ)
		iguana
		CN cuetzpalli (Sim.) "glotón, lagartija (iguana)"; PN *kwəts 
		cf. (C) ku:ketspal
(C) ku:ketspal  			iguana, garrobo, guexpo (ku:getspal)
		iguana
		kuhku:ketspal (pl.)
		CN cuetzpalli (Sim.) "glotón, lagartija (iguana)"; PN *kwəts
		cf. (SD) ku:ke
		
(C) kuki:xtilu:ni 			amatillo (matocha o vara, medicinal para la piel)
		plant sp., bush or reed (?), medicinal for the skin
		cf. (?) ku- 'wood'

(C) ku:ku, ku:kuh  			coco (ku:kuʔ), (ku:kuh)
		coconut
		Sp. coco
		cf. (SD) koko(h)

(C) ku:kua (t.v.)  			doler
		to hurt, to pain, to ache
		ku:kua (pres.) ki-ku:kua "it hurts"
		ku:kuh (pret.) nech-ku:kuh "it hurt me"
		ku:kuh-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. (SD) cocoa "estar enfermo"; PN *koko(wa) "sick"

(C) kukuawitsti (t.v., encorp.)  	espinar
		to stick with thorns
		kukuawitsti (pres.) ki-kukuawitsti "it sticks him"
		kukuawitsti-k (pret.) (?)
		kukuawitsti-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. ku:kua "to hurt, pain", wits-ti "thorn", -ti (?) 'inchoative'

(SD) kukuchi (i.v., redup.) 		cabecearse (estar al punto de caerse dormido)
		to be falling asleep, to nod off to sleep
		cf. kuchi "to sleep"

(C) kukuk  				fuerte, picante (de chile, trago) 
		strong, hot, spicy (of chili, drinks) 
		kuhkukuk (pl.) (kuhkuguk)
		CN cococ (Sim.) "picante, dolor"

(SD) kukuk  				doloroso, duele (guguk)
		painful

(C) kukuk-nah  			picante, algo fuerte
		hot, spicy, somewhat hot
		cf. kukuk "hot, spicy", -nah 'adj.'

(C) kukulis  				enfermedad, peste
		sickness, desease, epidemic
		kuhkulis (pl.)
		cf. kuku-ya "to get sick", -li-s 'nominalization' 
		CN cocoliztli (Sim.) "enfermedad, peste, epidemia"
(SD) kukulis
		kuhkukulis, kuhkulis (pl.)

(C) ku:kulu  				tragadero
		throat, gullet
		CN cf. (?) cocollo (Sim.) "delgado, enjuto, débil"

(C) ku:kulu:-tsin  			tortolita
		a small dove sp.
		cf. -tsin 'diminutive'
		cf. (SD) kukuru:wa

(C) kuku:luxuti  			un jute venenoso (caracol)
		a snail sp., poisonous
		cf. (?) kuku-ya "to get sick", xuti "snail"

(SD) kukuru:wa  			tortolita
		a small dove sp.
		cf. (C) ku:kulu:-tsin

(SD) kukux  				reconvalecente (persona) (gugux) 
		convalescent person
		cocox(ca) (Sim.) "debilidad, languido"

(C) kukuya  				enfermarse, estar enfermo, doler
		to get sick, to be ill, to hurt kukuya (pres.)
		kukux-ki (pret.)
		kukux-tuk (perf.) 
		CN kokoya (Car.) 
(SD) kukuya
		kukuya-k (pret.) 
		kukuya-tuk (perf.)

(C) kukuyani  				el enfermo sick person
		cf. kukuya "to get sick", -ni 'agent'
(SD) kukuyani
		kuhkuyani (pl.), (also: kuhkukuyani (?))
(SD) ku:lal  				cerco, corral, chiquero (gu:lal) 
		fense, corral, pigpen
		-ku:lal (poss.)  nu-ku:lal "my fense"
		kuhku:lal (pl.)
		Sp. corral

(SD) kulantroh  			culantro (cilantro)
		coriander
		Sp. culantro

(SD) ku:lekeme-t  			palo pito
		tree sp., with red beans, small red flower that can be made into a whistle
		cf. ku:- 'tree'
		cf. (C) le:kemet

(SD) kulon, kulona(h)  		nalgón, nalgona 
		person with large buttocks
		Sp. culon, culona

(C) kulpah  				culpa
		fault, blame
		ni-k-piya kulpah "it's my fault" (tengo la culpa) 
		Sp. culpa

(SD) kultuh  				culto
		cult, worship
		Sp. culto

(SD) ku:lulua (t.v.)  			enrollar
		to roll, to roll up
		ku:lulua (pres.)
		ku:luluh, ku:lulih (pret.)
		ki-ku:lulih-ke-t "they  rolled it up"
		ku:luluh-tuk, ku:lulih-tuk (perf.)       
		cf. ta-ku:lulua "to be rolling"
		CN cf. ko:loa (Car.) "torcer", ko:liwi "torcer"; coloa (Sim.) "doblarse, hacer circuitos, 			ir a alguna parte dando rodeos" 

(C) ku:lu-t  				alacrán
		scorpion
		kuhku:lut (pl.)
		ku:lu-tsin "small scorpion" (alacrancito) 
		CN ko:lo:tl (Car.); PN *ko:lo:-
(SD) ku:lu-t

(C) ku:lu-tsi:ka-t  			hormiga tigra, turunca
		ant sp., "tiger" ant, large, sting is very painful 
		cf. ku:lu-t "scorpion", tsi:ka-t "ant"
(SD) ku:lu-tsi:ka-t

(C) kumah  				cuma (machete pando y picudo)
		a kind of machete, curved and pointed
		Sp. cuma
(SD) kumah (gumah)

(C) kuma:l  				comal
		tortilla griddle
		-kuma:l (poss.) 
		kuhkuma:l (pl.) 
		kuma:l-tsin "small griddle" (comalito) 
		CN comalli (Sim.); PN *koma:l-
(SD) kumal (gumał)

(C) ku:ma:leh  			comadre 
		co-godmother
		Sp. comadre

(C) ku:ma:tsah  			pina 
		pineapple
		-ku:ma:tsah (poss.) 
		kuhku:ma:tsah (pl.) 
		cf. ku:- 'wood, tree' 
		CN matzatli (Sim.)

(SD) kumima (t.v., r.v.)  		tirar(se), echar(se), aventar(se) 
		to throw
		kumima (pres.) ni-k-kumima "I throw it" (nigumimaʔ) 
		kumin-ki (pret.) mu-kumin-ki "she threw herself (in)" 
		kumin-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kutamima "to throw (out, down)"
		cf. ku- (?) 'tree', (?) 'head', mima "to throw"

(C) ku:mi-t  				olla
		(clay) pot
		-ku:n (poss.) nu-ku:n "my pot" (nuku:ŋ) 
		kuhku:mit (pl.) 
		CN ko:mitl (Car.); PN *ko:mV-
(SD) ku:mi-t (gu:mit)
		nu-ku:n "my pot" (nugu:ŋ)

(SD) -kumpa  				compañero, compañera
		companion, friend
		i-kumpa  "his companion" (igumpaʔ) 
		-kumpa-wan (pl.) 
		Sp. (?) compañero

(C) ku:mpa:leh  			compadre 
		co-godfather
		Sp. compadre

(SD) kumplianyos  			cumpliaños 
		birthday
		Sp. cumplianos

(C) ku:mu:ni (i.v.)  			alborotarse 
		to swarm, to get excited 
		ku:mu:ni (pres.) 
		ku:mu:ni-k (pret.) 
		ku:mu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:mu:nia (t.v.) "to cause to swarm, to excite"
		CN komo:ni (Car.) "hacer ruido";  komo:ni (UC) "encenderse, echar llama el fuego";  		cf.  komo:nia (UC) "alborotar  la gente" 
(SD) kumu:ni
		kumu:n (pret.) ni-kumu:n "I got excited"
		cf. kumu:ntia (t.v.) "to exite, to agitate"

(C) ku:mu:nia (t.v.)  			alborotar
		to cause to swarm, to excite
		ku:mu:nia (pres.)
		ku:mu:nih (pret.) ni-k-ku:mu:nih "I stirred it up,  caused it to swarm"
		ku:mu:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-ku:mu:nia "to excite something"
		cf. (SD) kumu:ntia

(SD) kumu:ntia (t.v., r.v.)  		alborotar(se)
		to excite, to agitate
		kumu:ntia (pres.)
		kumu:ntih (pret.) ki-kumu:ntih "she agitated it", mu-kumu:ntih "he got excited, 				agitated"
		cf. ta-kumu:ntia "to agitate, to excite (someting)"
		cf. kumu:ni (i.v.) to swarm, to get excited", -tia 'caus.' 
		cf. (C) ku:mu:nia

(SD) ku:nah  				cuna 
		cradle 
		-ku:nah (poss.) i-ku:nah "her cradle" 
		kuhku:nah (pl.) 
		Sp. cuna
(C) ku:naka (i.v.)  			trabarse, atorarse
		to stick, to get stuck
		ku:naka (pres.)
		ku:naka-k (pret.)  ku:naka-k "it got stuck"
		ku:nak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:- (?) 'tree', 'head', naka "to stay, to remain"
		cf. ku:naktia (t.v.) "to stick, to jam"
		cf. (SD) ku:naki

(C) ku:nakas  				conacaste, cuanacaste, guanacaste (árbol)
		tree sp., with an ear-shaped pod with seeds that are  eaten toasted, wood used for 				building
		kuhku:nakas (pl.) 
		cf. ku:- 'tree', -nakas "ear"
(SD) ku:nakas

(SD) ku:naki (i.v.)  			trabarse, atorarse
		to stick, to get stuck
		ku:naki (pres.)
		ku:nak (pret.) 
		ku:nak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:naktia (t.v.) "to stick, to jam"
		cf. (C) ku:naka

(C) ku:naktia (t.v.)  			trabar, atorar
		to stick, to jam, to get something stuck
		ku:naktia (pres.)
		ku:naktih (pret.)
		ku:naktih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:naka (i.v.) "to get stuck", -tia 'caus.'
(SD) ku:naktia

(SD) ku:nanaka-t  			tenquiqui, hongo de palo, orejita de palo (gu:nanagat)
		mushroom sp., tree mushroom
		cf. ku:- 'tree', nanaka-t "mushroom"
		CN quauhnanacatl (Sim.) "hongo, excrecencia de arbol"

(SD) kune:-piya (n.)  			niñera
		baby-sitter
		cf. kune:-t "child", piya "to have"

(C) kune:-t  				niño, criatura, tierno (bebé)
		baby, child, infant
		-kune:-w (poss.)  nu-kune:-w "my baby, my child"
		kuhku:net (pl.) 
		kune:-tsin "little baby" (criatura) 
		CN kone:tl (Car.); PN *kone:-
(SD) kune:-t

(C) kune:t me:ts-ti  			luna nueva
		new moon
		cf. kune:-t "child, baby", me:ts-ti "moon"

(SD) kunih  				entonces
		then
		cf. kiunih

(SD) kuntan  				bejuco lagarto (kuntaŋ) 
		vine sp., "alligator" vine

(C) ku:ntapa  				tiesto (tepalcate) 
		potsherd, broken piece of pot 
		cf. ku:mi-t "pot", tapa:ni "to break"
(SD) ku:ntapa 		(gu:ntapaʔ)
		kuhku:ntapa (pl.) 

(C) ku:nti:l  				carbón, tile, tizne
		soot
		cf. ku:mi-t "pot", ti:l "soot"
		CN contlilli (Mol.) "tizne de ollas"

(C) ku:nti:l-nah (adj.)  		entilado (entiznado) 
		sooty
		cf. ku:nti:l "soot", -nah 'adj.'

(C) ku:nti:lwia (t.v.)  			entilar, entiznar
		to get sooty, to make sooty
		ku:nti:lwia (pres.) ni-k-ku:nti:lwia "I'm getting it sooty" 
		ku:nti:lwih (pret.)
		ku:nti:lwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:nti:l "soot"
		CN contlilhuia (Mol.) "tiznar(se)"

(SD) kunyada(h)  			cuñada de hombre
		man's sister-in-law
		Sp. cuñada

(SD) kunyadu(h)  			cuñado de hombre 
		man's brother-in-law
		Sp. cuñado

(SD) ku(:)nyuwa  			oscuridad, oscuro 
		darkness, dark
		cf.  ku:mi-t "pot", yuwa(ki) "dark, opaque", ta-yuwa "at night"

(C) ku:pachón  			peludo
		hairy
		cf. ku:- 'head', Sp. pachon "hairy"

(C) ku:pachua (t.v.,  r.v.)  		apachar, aplastar, oprimir, detener en el suelo
		to hold,  to hold down,  to put something on top of something else, to hold on the 				ground
		ku:pachua (pres.) ni-k-ku:pachua "I'm holding it down", ni-mu-ku:pachua "I'm 				holding myself down"
		ku:pachuh (pret.)
		ku:pachuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:- 'head', pachua "to hold down"
		cf. ta-ku:pachua "to be holding (something) down"
(SD) ku:pachua (t.v.)

(C) ku:pahsul  				peludo (de animal, persona), persona que no se peina 		hairy (of people or animals), a person who is uncombed
		cf. ku:- 'head'
		CN cf. pacoltic (Mol.) "cosa lanuda", paçoloa (Mol.) "erizarse el pelo al gato o al 				perro"
		cf. (SD) ku:pahsul "garbage"

(SD) ku:pahsul  			basura
		garbage, rubbish, trash
		kuhku:pahsul (pl.) 
		cf. ku:- (?) 'head', 'tree'
		cf. (C) ku:pahsul "hairy, uncombed person", (C) tahsul "garbage"

(C) ku:pahsul-nah (adj.)  		cabello alborotado, greñudo 
		uncombed, with messed-up hair
		cf. ku:pahsul "hairy, uncombed person", -nah 'adj.'

(C) -kupak  				garganta, voz, eco
		throat, voice, echo nu-kupak "my voice" i-kupak "its echo" 
		CN copactli (Sim.) "paladar, el interior de la boca"
(SD) kupak

(C) kupal  				copal (árbol de copal, incienso copal)
		copal incense, copal tree
		CN kopalli (Car.)
(SD) kupal (gupał)

(C) ku:pala  				palo podrido
		rotten tree, rotten wood
		cf. ku:- 'tree, wood', pala "old"
		cf. (SD) kuhpala "rotten firewood"
	
(SD) kupalchin  			copalillo
		tree sp., small kind of copal tree
		cf. kupal "copal tree", -tsin/-chin 'diminutive'
		cf. (?) (C) kupalchi:tuh "copalchillo tree"

(C) kupalchi:tuh  			copalchillo (árbol)
		tree sp., bark used for stomach aches
		cf. kupal "copal tree", (?) Sp. -ito 'diminutive'
		cf. (?) (SD) kupalchin "copalillo tree"

(C) ku:pa:n-ti    		pante, pantis (una medida de leña amontonada de 							aproximadamente un metro de ancho y de 2 metros de alto)
		a measure  of firewood,  about one meter wide and two  meters high
		-ku:pa:n (poss.) nu-ku:pa:n "my pante"
		cf. ku:- 'wood'
		CN cf. (?) quauhpantli (Sim.) "puente de madera"
		cf. (SD) pa:n-ti "pante of firewood"

(C) ku:panu:was  		puente de palos (palo para cruzar)
		a bridge of logs or a log for crossing
		cf. ku:- 'tree, wood', panu "to cross", -(wa)s 'nominalization'
		CN quauhpanauaztli (Sim.) "puente de madera"

(C) ku:papay  			guarumo (árbol parecido al palo de papaya)
		tree sp., similar to papaya, tall and thin, leaves only near the top, with seeds like small 			boxes, leaves used to wrap up cheese to dry it
		kuhku:papay (pl.) 
		cf. ku:- 'tree', Sp. papaya
(C) kupapaya (gupapayaʔ)

(C) ku:patach  			pataxte, palo jabillo (jabilla)
		tree sp., wild cacao (?)
		cf. (SD) pa(:)tach "pataxte (wild cacao) tree"

(C) mu-ku:pa:wia (r.v.)  	mecerse
		to swing
		mu-ku:pa:wia (pres.) ni-mu-ku:pa:wia "I'm swinging" (nimuku:pa:wiyaʔ)
		mu-ku:pa:wih (pret.) 
		mu-ku:pa:wih-tuk (perf.)

(C) ku:pa:wichi (n.)  		maroma, columpio 
		swing
		cf. ku:pa:wia "to swing"

(C) kupe:wa (t.v.)  		quebrar (madera) 
		to break (wood)
		kupe:wa (pres.)
		kupe:h (pret.)
		kupe:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku- 'wood', (?) pe:wia "to hunt"
		CN cf.(?) peua (Sim.) "vencer" 
		cf. kupe:wi (i.v.) "(for wood) to break"

(C) kupe:wi (i.v.)  		quebrarse (madera, etc.) 
		to break (wood, etc.)
		kupe:wi (pres.)
		kupe:wi-k (pret.)
		kupe:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kupe:wa (t.v.) "to break (wood)"
		cf. ku- 'wood', (?) pe:wia "to hunt"

(SD) kupilua (t.v.)  		colgar
		to hang
		kupilua (pres.)
		kupiluh (pret.)
		kupiluh-tuk (perf.)
		xi-k-kupilu "hang it!"
		cf. ta-kupilua "to be hanging (something)" 
		cf. (?) ku- 'head', pilua "to hang"
		CN cf. quappiloa (Sim.) "aplicarse"

(C) kupi:na (t.v.)  		arrancar
		to pull out, to tear out, to tear off
		kupi:na (pres.) ti-k-kupi:na-t "we are tearing it out"
		kupi:n (pret.) ki-kupi:n "(she) pulled it out"
		kupi:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-kupi:na "to be pulling out", kupi:ni (i.v.) "to come out"
		CN copina (Sim.) "sacar una cosa de otra"
(SD) ku(:)pina
		ku(:)pin-ki (pret.)

(C) kupi:ni (i.v.)  		arrancarse, zafarse
		to come loose, to break off, to come out
		kupi:ni (pres.)
		kupi:ni-k (pret.)
		kupi:n-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. kupi:na (t.v.) "to pull out"
		CN kopini (UC)

(C) ku:pinu:l  			copinol (árbol)
		tree sp., gives a lot of shade and is used to protect coffee trees, its fruit (inside a hard 			shell) has a sweet yellow powder which is eaten
		cf. ku:- 'tree', pinu:l "pinole (powder)"
(SD) ku:pinul (gu:pinul)

(SD) kupis  			tunco, marrano macho (gupis) 
		bore, male pig
		kuhkupis (pl.) 

(C) ku:pitsaktin  		raquitico, delgado; estrecha o apretada (de una camisa)
		feeble, thin, rachitic; tight (of a shirt)
		(note: some say ku:pichakchin, ku:pichaktsin)
		cf. (?) ku:- 'tree", pits(a:w)ak "thin", -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN quauhpitzactli (Mol.) "palo o vara delgada"
		cf. ku:pitsa:wak "thin"

(C) ku:pitsa:wak  		delgado; apretado (de camisa)
		thin; tight (of a shirt)
		cf. (?) ku:- 'tree', pitsa:wak "thin"

(C) ku:puk-nah  		sucio (de ropa)
		dirty (of clothes)
		cf. (?) ku:- 'tree', (?) 'head', puknah "dirty"
(SD) ku:puk-nah 	café (color) (ku:puknah)
		brown

(SD) kurrunchuh  		roncha, erupción
		rash, welts
		cf. (?) ku- 'head', Sp. (?) roncha "rash"

(C) kusama:liyuh  		comadreja
		weasel
		kuhkusama:liyuh (pl.) 
		CN cuçamatl, cuçatli (Mol.)

(C) kusama:lu, kusama:luh  	arco iris (kusama:luʔ), (kusama:luh) 
		rainbow
		CN kosama:lotl (Car.)
		cf. (SD) kusama:lu-t

(SD) kusama:lu-t  		arco iris  (gusama:lut) 
		rainbow
		kuhkusama:lut (pl.) 
		CN kosama:lotl (Car.)
		cf. (C) kusama:lu(h)

(C) ku:sama:wa (i.v.)  		erizarse (del cuerpo) 
		to have gooseflesh, goose-bumps ku:sama:wa (pres.)
		ku:sama:wa-k (pret.)
		ku:sama:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ku:- 'head', sama:wa "to abound"

(C) ku:sikna  				brujo (ku:siknaʔ)
		witch, sorcerer

(SD) ku:ska-t  				soguilla, collar (gu:skat) 
		necklace
		-ku:s (poss.)  nu-ku:s "my necklace"
		CN ko:skatl (Car.), no-ko:ski "my necklace"
		cf. (C) ku:s-ti

(SD) kuskus  				sonido del zopilote cuando vuela (gusgus) 
		the sound of a buzzard (vulture) flying

(C) kusma  				zopilote (kusmaʔ)
		buzzard (vulture)
		kuhkusma (pl.) 
		(forms such as kusma and kuxma are widely  borrowed among several languages of 			Central America; this Pipil word is ultimately from one of these; cf. Sumu kusma,  			Matagalpa kuxma, etc.)

(SD) ku:s-nah (adj.)  		color no muy firme, entre negro y blanquesco (algo sucio)
		a color, not very bright or solid, between black and whitish, somewhat dirty-looking
		CN cf. kostik (Car.) "amarillo"

(C) ku:s-ti  				soguilla, collar, perla (cuenta)
		necklace, bead
		-ku:s (poss.)  i-ku:s "her necklace"
		CN ko:skatl (Car.) "joya", no-ko:ski "mi joya"
		cf. (SD) ku:ska-t

(SD) kustumbre(h)  			costumbre
		custom, habit
		Sp. costumbre

(C, SD) ku:sua (t.v.) 			"to string"; see ku:suwa

(C) kusuku  				cusuco, armado, armadillo (kusuku)
		armadillo
		Sp. cusuco

(C) ku:suwa (t.v.)  			ensartar
		to string or to thread (beads, pearls, etc.)
		ku:suwa (pres.)
		ku:suh (pret.) ni-k-ku:suh "I strung it"
		ku:suh-tuk (perf.) ki-ku:suh-tuk "she has strung it"
		cf. ta-ku:suwa "to be stringing"
		cf. ku:s-ti "necklace, bead", (?) suwa "to stretch, hang"
		(note: fonetically this verb has w in the 'pres.' and h in the 'pret.' in both dialects,  				which makes it phonemically ambiguous, either /ku:suwa/ or /ku:sua/; the choice 			of /w/ here in the underlying form is based on the probable etymological 				connection with suwa "to stretch, to hang".)
(SD) ku:suwa
		ku:suh (pret.)
		ku:suh-tuk (perf.)

(C) ku:talalahtsin  			tenguereche de agua (lagartija)
		a water "lizard" (salamander (?))
		cf. (?) ku:- 'head', ta- 'unspec. obj.', a:l(a:w)ak "smooth", -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN cf. (?) tlalalacatl (Sim.) "ganso o pato silvestre"
		cf.(?) (SD) ta:la:laktsin "talalaise fish"

(SD) ku(:)tamima (t.v.)  		botar, aventar
		to throw out, to throw down, to shove 
		(also ku(:)tami:ma)
		ku(:)tamima (pres.)
		ku(:)tamin (pret.)
		ku(:)tamin-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tami:ma "to throw out", kumima "to throw"

(C) ku:tapa:na (t.v.)  			rajar leña
		to cut/split firewood 
		ku:tapa:na (pres.) 
		ku:tapa:n (pret.) 
		ku:tapa:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:- 'wood', tapa:na "to break open" 
		CN quauhtlapana (Mol.) "rajar madero"

(C) ku:tapipis  			chirivisco (palitos chiquitos, ramitas secas) 
		sticks, kindling
		cf. ku:- 'wood'
		CN cf. quauhtlapipilhuaztli (Sim.) "percha, vara"
		cf. (SD) ku:tsitsin

(SD) ku:tehkuni  			escalera de tronco, escala de madera (rollizo)
		log ladder, steps cut out of a log
		cf. ku:- 'wood, tree', tehku "to climb", -ni 'agent'

(SD) ku:tekuma    		cutecuma, tecumasucho, tecomasucho, tecomasuchil (árbol)
		tree sp., tall, thick, with yellow cartridge-shaped flowers, with bark that is easily 				pealed and is used  for  belts, with  large ball-shaped seeds which have "cotton"  			inside them
		cf. ku:- 'tree', tekuma-t "bottle gourd"
		cf. (C) tekumaxu:chit

(SD) ku:telele  			trompo (grande) (gu:teleleʔ)
		(large) toy top
		kuhkutelele (pl.) 
		cf. ku:- 'wood'

(C) ku:temu (i.v.)  			bajarse
		to come down, to descend
		cf. (?) ku:- 'tree', 'head', temu "to come down"

(C) ku:tetun  			tetunte (cuña, pedazo de algo que se pone, por ejemplo, 							debajo de la pata de la mesa para que no se mueva) 			wedge, a piece of something that is put, for example, under a table leg so it won't 				move
	cf. ku:- 'wood', tetun(ti) "piece, wedge"

(C) ku:tewa:ki (i.v.)  		enflaquecerse
		to get skinny, to become skinny, thin
		ku:tewa:ki (pres.)  (ku:tewa:giʔ)
		ku:tewa:ki-k (pret.)
		ku:tewa:k-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ku:- 'tree', tewa:ki "to become skinny, thin"
		CN cf. quauhuaqui (Sim.) "enflacaar,  quedar demacrado, seco como un pedazo de 			madera"
		cf. (SD) ku:waki

(C) ku:tikxi  			zancos
		stilts
		-ku:tikxi nu-ku:tikxi "my stilts" 
		cf. ku:- 'tree, wood', (i)kxi "foot" 
		CN quauhicxitl (Mol.)

(C) kutila:na (t.v.)  		estirar
		to stretch, to pull
		cf. ku- (?) 'head', tila:na "to pull"
(C) ku:tili:n-tuk (adj.)  		estirado (tieso) 
		stretched, tight, tightened
		cf. (?) ku:- 'head', tili:nia "to stretch", -tuk 'perf.' 
		cf. (SD) kutili:n-tuk "standing, erect"

(SD) kutili:ntuk (adj.) 			parado (de gente), erecto (obscena) 
		standing, erect (obscene)
		cf. (?) ku- 'head', tili:nia "to stretch" 
		cf. (C) ku:tili:n-tuk "tight"

(C) ku:ti:ltik  				negro, moreno (de gente) 
		Black, black person
		kuhku:ti:ltik (pl.) "blacks"
		cf. (?) ku:- 'head', ti:l-tik "black"
(SD) kuti:l-tik		negro
		black

(C) ku:ti:ltiya (i.v.)  			negrearse, ennegrecerse
		to blacken, to turn black
		ku:ti:ltiya (pres.)
		ku:ti:ltiya-k (pret.)
		ku:ti:ltiya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:ti:ltik "black", -ya 'inchoative'

(C) ku:ti-t  				encendio
		fire, house fire, forest fire
		ku:ti-tsin "small fire"
		cf. ku:- 'tree', ti-t "fire"

(SD) ku:tixi   			garabato (palo que forma gancho para colgar cosas) (ku:tixiʔ)
		wooden hook for storing things (?)
		cf. ku:- 'wood'

(SD) ku:ti:ya (i.v.)    		 cansarse (de estar en un lugar (sentado, parado, acostado))
		to tire of being in one place (standing, sitting, lying)
		ku:ti:ya (pres.)
		ku:ti:ya-k (pret.)
		ku:ti:ya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) kuhku:tiya, (C) mu-tsin-ku:ti:ya

(C) kutu  			corto
		short
		kuhkutu (pl.) 
		se:  kutu ich-ti "a short string", ich-ti kutu "the string is short"
		cf. kutu:na "to cut"
		cf. kutu-tsin "short"
(SD) kutu (gutuʔ)

(C) ku:tumak, ku:tuma:wak  		gordo, grueso
		fat, thick, big around
		cf. ku:- 'tree', tum(a:w)ak "fat"

(C) kutu:na (t.v.)  			cortar (con cuchillo, machete)
		to cut (with a knife, machete)
		kutu:na (pres.)
		kutu:n (pret.)
		kutu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kuhkutu:na "to cut into pieces"
		CN koto:na (Car.)

(SD) kutu:na (t.v.)  			cortar, partir (con cuchillo, machete) 
		to cut, to cut up
		kutu:n-ki (pret.)

(C) kutu-turrun  			chiguirin (chicharrita) 
		a small cicada sp.
		cf. kutu "short", Sp. (?) turron

(C) kutu-tsin  				corto
		short
		kuhkututsin (pl.) 
		cf. kutu "short", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) kutu:x  				cotusa, coatusa, guatusa (cuatusa) 
		agouti, paca (?)
		kuhkutu:x (pl.) 
		kutu:x-tsin "a little agouti (paca)" (cotusita) 
(SD) kutu:x (gutu:x)

(C) -ku:ts  				pierna, canilla
		leg
		nu-ku:ts "my leg"
		i-ku:ts "his/her leg" nuhnu-ku:ts "my legs" 
		CN cotstli (Mol.) "pantorrilla" ('leg' in compounds)
(SD) -ku:ts  	pantorrilla
		calf of leg

(SD) ku:tsitsin  			chirivisco (palitos, ramitas secas) 
		sticks, kindling
		cf. ku:- 'wood, tree', -tsin 'diminutive'
		cf. (C) ku:tapipis

(C) kuwa (t.v.)  			comprar
		to buy
		kuwa (pres.)
		kuh-ki (pret.) ni-k-kuh-ki "I bought it"
		kuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-kuwa "to be buying"
		CN ko(:)wa (Car.); PN *kowa
(SD) kuwa
		kuh-ki (pret.)
		kuh-tuk (perf.)

(SD) ku:wa:ki (i.v.)  			enflaquecerse, ensecarse 
		to get skinny, thin; to dry up
		ku:wa:ki (pres.)
		ku:wa:ki-k (pret.) ni-ku:wa:ki-k "I got skinny" (nigu:wa:gik) 
		ku:wa:k-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:- 'tree', wa:ki "to dry"
		cf. (C) ku:tewa:ki

(SD) ku:wa:k-tuk (adj.)  		flaco, seco
		skinny, thin, dried up
		cf. ku:wa:ki "to get skinny", -tuk 'perf.'

(C) mu-kuwa:na (r.v.)  		encogerse
		to shrink
		mu-kuwa:na (pres.)
		mu-kuwa:n-ki (pret.) mu-kuwa:n-ki "it shrank" (mukuwa:ngiʔ)
		mu-kuwa:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (SD) mu-ku:wana "to stretch"

(SD) mu-ku:wana  			estirarse
		to stretch (oneself)
		mu-ku:wana (pres.) 
		mu-ku:wan-ki (pret.) 
		mu-ku:wan-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) mu-kuwa:na "to shrink"

(C) ku:wa-t  				culebra
		snake
		-ku:wa-w (poss.) nu-ku:wa-w "my snake"
		kuhku:wat (pl.) 
		CN ko:atl (Car.); PN *ko:wa-
(SD) ku:wa-t  (gu:wat)

(C) ku(:)wa-tepe:-t  			Coatepeque (lugar)
		Coatepeque (place name)
		cf. ku:wa-t "snake", tepe:-t "mountain"

(SD) ku:wat meka-t  			bejuquillo (culebra)
		snake sp., thin, green, looks like a vine, said to be poisonous
		cf. ku:wa-t "snake", meka-t "vine"

(SD) kuweyak  			largo, terminado en punta
		long pointed
		cf. (?) ku- 'head', weyak "long"

(C) kuwilia (t.v., applic.)  		comprarle, comprar algo para alguien
		to buy for (to buy someone something)
		kuwilia (pres.)
		kuwilih (pret.) ki-kuwilih "she bought it for her" (se lo compro)
		kuwilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kuwa "to buy", -(i)lia 'applic.'

(SD) ku:witeki (t.v.)  			pegar, golpear (con algo), garrotear
		to hit (with something), to club
		ku:witeki (pres.)
		ku:witek (pret.)
		ku:witek-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ku:- 'head', 'wood', witeki "to hit"
		CN quauitequi  (Mol.) "dar de palos a otro, herirle en la cabeza con palo"

(C) kuwixin 				"bebe-leche" (lagartija)
		lizard sp., small, changes colors, called "milk-drinker"

(SD) ku:xi 				paterno, paterna (árbol, fruta) (gu:xiʔ)
		tree sp., a fruit; large tree with a long, wide fruit which has seeds that are boiled with 			ash and salt and eaten with lime juice
		cf. a:ku:xi  "pepeto" tree
		cf. (C) ku:xine

(C) ku:xi:kal  				batea (ku:xi:gal)
		wooden tray, trough
		-ku:xi:kal (poss.) nu-ku:xi:kal "my tray" 
		cf. ku:- 'wood', xi:kal "gourd bowl"
		CN quauhxicalli (Mol.)

(C) ku:xine  				paterno, cujin (árbol, fruta)
		tree sp., fruit; large tree with a long, wide fruit which has seeds that are boiled with 			ash and salt and  eaten  with lime juice
		cf. ku:- 'tree', xini "to scatter, sprinkle"
		cf. (SD) ku:xi 

(SD) ku:xini (i.v.)  			derramarse
		to overflow, to spill, to pour out
		ku:xini (pres.)
		ku:xini-k (pret.)
		ku:xin-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ku:-'head', 'wood', (?) xini "to scatter, to fall"
		cf. ku:xinia (t.v.) "to pour out, to spill"
		CN cf. koxo:ni (UC) "bacucar la vasija"

(SD) ku:xinia (t.v.)  			derramar, apear puno (bajar mucho) 
		to pour out, to spill, to get down a lot
		ku:xinia (pres.)
		ku:xin-ki (pret.) (?) 
		ku:xin-tuk (perf.) (?) 
		cf. ku:xini (i.v.) "to overflow, to pour out"

(C) kuxta  				cuxta (árbol parecido al cacao)  (kuxtaʔ) 
		tree sp., similar to cacao
		cf. (?) ku- 'tree'

(C) kuxta:l  				costal
		gunny-sack
		-kuxta:l (poss.) nu-kuxta:l "my gunny-sack" 
		kuhkuxta:l (pl.) 
		Sp. costal
(SD) ku:xtal, kuxta:l (gu:xtał), (guxta: ł)
		kuxta:l-chín "small gunny-sack" (-tsin/-chin 'diminutive')
		kuxta:l ombrón "large gunny-sack"

(C) -kuxun  				talega (de toro) (testículos de toro, huevos de toro, 							escroto de toro)
		bull's testicles, bull's scrotum
		i-kuxun "his/its testicles/scrotum" 
		cf. (?) Sp. cojón

(SD) -kuxun  				sobaco (axila)
		armpit
		nu-kuxun "my armpit"
		(?) Sp. cojón

(C) kuxu:xah  				cuxuxa (bebida, de la chicha, asienta de la chicha, licor 						de maiz)
		corn liquor, sediments of chicha
		Sp. cuxuxa
(SD) kuxu:xah  		cuxuxa (la última etapa en la preparación de chicha) 
		corn drink (liquor), the last stage in its preparation
(C) kuyame-t  			tunco, marrano (puerco, chancho, cerdo)
		pig
		-kuyan (poss.) nu-kuyan "my pig"
		kuhkuyamet (pl.) 
		CN koyametl (Car.)
(SD) kuyame-t  (guyamet)

(C) kuyan-iswa-t  		cuyanigua (camote tierno (monte), bijagua cuyanigua) 						(kuyaŋiswat)
		a root, wild, like sweet potato (?)

(C) kuya:wak  			ancho (de cosas huecas)
		wide (of hollow things, e.g. holes, gourds, pots, etc.) 
		cf. kuyuna "to make a hole"
(SD) kuya:wak

(C) -ku:yu  			mata
		plant stock, stem, small tree
		i-ku:yu  "its stem"
		i-ku:yu nantsin "nance tree"
		cf. (?) ku:- 'tree', -yu 'intimate poss.'
		CN quauhyotl (Sim.) "tallo"
(SD) -ku:yu
		i-ku:yu ich-ti  "maguey plant" (mata de maguey)
		i-ku:yu tsapu-t "soursop (anona) tree" (mata/palo de anona)

(SD) ku:yua:pan  		Río Cuyuapa (gu:yu(w)apan)
		Cuyuapa River
		cf. (?) ku:yu "stock, plant", a:pan "river"

(C) ku:yu:chu:ka (n.)  		aullo, aullido, latido (ku:yu:chu:gaʔ)
		howl (note: it is believed that dogs howl because of evil spirits) 
		kuhku:yu:chu:ka (pl.) 
		cf. kuyu:-t "coyote", chu:ka "to cry"
		CN coyochoca (Sim.) "aullar" 
(SD) ku:yuchu:ka  (gu:yuchu:gaʔ)
		i-ku:yuchu:ka ne pe:lu "the dog's howl(ing)"

(C) kuyul  			coyol (palmera)
		coyol palm tree kuhkuyul (pl.) 
		CN koyolli (Car.); coyolli (Sim.) "cascabel, anzuelo, clase de palmera"
(SD) kuyul 	güiscoyol (árbol o palma con muchas espinas) (guyul)
		tree sp, a kind of palm with many thorns

(C) mu-kuyulua (r.v.)  	encogerse, evitar, esconderse, humillarse (de un peligro)    
		to duck, to shrink away, to avoid
		mu-kuyulua (pres.)
		mu-kuyuluh (pret.)
		mu-kuyuluh-tuk (perf.)
(SD) -ku(:)yulua (t.v., r.v.)
		mu-ku(:)yulua "it shrinks"
		ki-ku(:)yulua "(he) is shrinking it"

(SD) kuyuna (t.v)  		hacer hoyo, abrir agujero (agujerar) 
		to make a hole
		kuyuna (pres.)
		kuyun(-ki) (pret.) ni-k-kuyun(-ki) "I'm making a hole in it" (niguyuŋgiʔ)
		kuyun-tuk (perf.)
		CN coyonia (Sim.) "agujerear, horadar"
		cf. (C) kuyunia

(C) kuyuni (i.v.)  		abrirse hoyo, agujerarse
		for a hole to open up, for a hole to form
		kuyuni (pres.)
		kuyuni-k (pret.)
		kuyun-tuk (perf.)
		CN koyoni (UC) "agujerarse"
		cf. kuyunia (t.v.) "to make a hole"

(C) kuyunia (t.v.)  		abrir agujero, dar hoyo (agujerar)
		to make a hole (in something)
		kuyunia (pres.)
		kuyunih (pret.) ni-k-kuyunih "I made a hole in it"
		kuyunih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kuyuni (i.v.) "to get a hole",  ta-kuyuna "to be  making hole(s)" 
		CN coyonia (Sim.) "agujerear, horadar"
		cf. (SD) kuyuna
	
(C) kuyu:-t  			coyote
		coyote
		kuhkuyu:t (pl.) kuyu:-tsin "little coyote" 
		CN koyo:tl (Car.); PN *koyo:-

(SD) ku:yuwa 			sombra, debajo del palo (árbol), oscuro (gu:yuwa) 
		shade, under a tree, shaded (darker)
		cf. ku:- 'tree', cf. ta-yuwa "night", yuwa(-ki) "dark, opaque"     

(C) mu-kxi-pa:ka (r.v., incorp.) 	lavarse el pie/los pies
		to wash one's foot/feet
		cf. (i)kxi "foot", pa:ka "to wash"
		CN icxipaca (Sim.)

KW

(C) kwa (t.v.)  				comer
		to eat
		kwa (pres.)
		kwah (pret.) ni-k-kwah-a "I already ate it" 
		kwah-tuk (perf.) ti-k-kwah-tiwi-t "we have eaten it" 
		cf. ta-kwa "to eat, be eating"
		CN kwa (Car.); PN *kwa
(SD) kwa
	
(C,SD) kwa:- 				'head' (in compounds); see kwa(h)-
	
(SD) kwachichi:l  			una clase de pájaro
		bird sp.
		cf. kwa(h)- 'head', chi:l- 'red'
		CN quachichil (Sim.) "chorlito real, pajarillo que canta muy bien"
	
(C) kwa:ch-ki:xtia (t.v., incorp.)  	colar
		to strain (liquids)
		kwa:chki:xtia (pres.) ki-kwa:chki:xtia "(she) strains it" 
		kwa:chki:xtih (pret.)
		kwa:chki:xtih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwa:ch-ti "rag, cloth", ki:xtia "to take out"
	
(C) kwa:ch-pala  			trapo
		rag, cloth
		-kwa:chpala (poss.) 
		kwahkwa:chpala (pl.) 
		cf. kwa:ch-ti "cloth", pala "old"
(SD) kwa:ch-pala  	trapo, paño viejo
		old cloth, rag

(C) kwa:ch-ti  				servilleta, mantita, mantelito (para tortillas) 
		napkin, small cloth to wrap tortillas in
		-kwa:ch (poss.) nu-kwa:ch "my napkin" 
		kwahkwa:chti (pl.) 
		CN kwa:chtli (Car.) "manta grande"
(SD) kwa:ch-ti		trapo, tela, ropa
		rag, cloth, clothes
		nu-kwa:ch "my clothes" 
		nu-kwahkwa:ch (pl.) "my clothes, clothing"

(C, SD) kwa(h)-, kwa:- 		'cabeza' (en palabras compuestas) 
		'head' (in compounds)
		cf. also ku- 'head'
(C) -kwah 				aparte, separado 
		apart, separate
		i-kwah nemi "it's separate"

(C) kwahkwalu (i.v., redup.)  		rendirse (el cuerpo) (cansarse mucho) 
		to be exhausted, to be very tired
		kwahkwalu (pres.)
		kwahkwalu-k (pret.)
		kwahkwalu-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwalu "to be eaten"

(C) kwahkwawi (i.v.)  		leñar, picar leña, recoger leña
		to get firewood
		kwahkwawi (pres.)
		kwahkwaw (pret.)
		kwahkwaw-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwawi-t "tree, wood"
		CN cf. quaquaui (Sim.) "ser leñador"
(SD) kwahkwawi
		kwahkwaw(-ki) (pret.)

(C) -kwahsiwis  			el brío (de uno) (fuerza, energía para hacer algo) 
		the strength/energy to do something, gumption
		i-kwahsiwis "his/her strength/gumption"

(C) kwahtetun  			almohada (cojín)
		pillow, cushion
		-kwahtetun (poss.) nu-kwahtetun "my pillow"
		cf. kwa(h)- 'head', tetunti "wedge"
(SD) kwahtetun

(SD) -kwahtsin  		pano para cubrirse la mujer, tapado de mujer (rebozo blanco)
		a woman's shawl, scarf
		nu-kwahtsin "my scarf"
		cf. kwah- 'head', -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) kwakwalaka (i.v., redup.)  	hervir
		to boil
		kwakwalaka (pres.)
		kwakwalaka-k (pret.)
		kwakwalaka-tuk (perf.) kwakwalaka-tuk-a "it has already boiled"
		cf. kwala:ni "to get angry", kwakwalatsa (t.v.) "to boil"
		CN kwakwalaka (Car.)
(SD) kwakwalaka

(C) kwakwalatsa (t.v.)  		hervir
		to boil
		kwakwalatsa (pres.)
		kwakwalats-ki (pret.) ni-k-kwakwalats-ki "I boiled it"
		kwakwalats-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwala:ni "to get angry", kwakwalaka (i.v.) "to boil"
		CN kwakwalatsa (Car.)
(SD) kwakwalatsa

(C) kwalan (n.)  			colera, enojo
		anger
		cf. kwala:ni "to get angry"
(SD) kwalan

(C) kwala:ni (i.v.)  			enojarse
		to anger, to get mad, to become angry
		kwala:ni (pres.) ni-kwala:ni "I'm angry, I get mad"
		kwala:ni-k (pret.)
		kwala:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwala:ntia (t.v.) "to anger (someone)"
		CN kwala:ni (Car.)
(SD) kwala:ni

(C) kwala:ni (n., adj.)  		enojado, bravo (la person que está enojado /bravo)
		angry, angry person
		kwala:ni nemi "(he/she) is angry"
		cf. kwala:ni "to become angry"

(C) kwala:ntia (t.v.)  			enojar (a otro) 
		to anger (someone)
		kwala:ntia (pres.)
		kwala:ntih (pret.) nech-kwala:ntih "(he) angered me"
		kwala:ntih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwala:ni (i.v.) "to become angry"
		CN qualantia (Sim.) "encolerizar, irritar a alguien"

(SD)  kwalu:  (i.v.)   			picarse (maíz, carne, cuando se llena de gorgojo)
		to be insect infested, eaten by worms/grubs
		kwalu: (pres.)
		kwalu:-k (pret.) kwalu:-k "it is infested/eaten"
		kwalu:-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwa "to eat", (?) -lu 'passive'
		cf. kwalu "to eclipse"
		cf. (C) kwe:chiwi

(C) kwalu (i.v.)  			eclipsar
		(for something) to eclipse
		kwalu (pres.)
		kwalu-k (pret.)
		kwalu-tuk (perf.)
		kwalu me:ts-ti "for there to be an eclipse of the moon"
		kwalu tu:nal "for there to be an eclipse of the sun" 
		cf. (SD) kwalu(:) "to be eaten/insect infested"
		CN qualocayotl (Sim.) "eclipse,  comido", iqualoca in metztli "eclipse de luna", 				iqualoca in tonatiuh "eclipse de sol"
(SD) kwalu:
		kwalu: me:ts-ti "for there to be an eclipse of the moon" 
		kwalu: tu:nal "for there to be an eclipse of the sun"

(C) -kwa:tapal 			frente 
		forehead 
		nu-kwa:tapal "my forehead" 
		cf. kwa:- 'head', "forehead"
(SD) kwatapal

(C) kwa:tapa:na (t.v.)  		rajar la frente 
		to split open the forehead 
		kwa:tapa:na (pres.)
		kwa:tapa:n (pret.) ki-kwatapa:n "she split open his forehead"  
		kwa:tapa:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwa:- 'head', tapa:na "to break open"
		CN quatlapana (Sim.) "romper la cabeza"

(SD) kwatroho(h)  			cuatrojo, conga (pescado)
		fish  sp., "four-eyed" fish, swims near surface with eyes exposed and reflection makes 			it appear to have four eyes
		Sp. cuatrojo (cuatro ojo(s))

(C) kwa:tsaya:na (t.v.)  		rajar la frente
		to split open the forehead
		kwa:tsaya:na (pres.)
		kwa:tsaya:n (pret.) ki-kwa:tsaya:n "he split open her forehead"
		kwa:tsaya:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwa:- 'head', "forehead", tsaya:na "to split"
		CN quatzayana (Sim.) "golpear la cabeza, paratirsela" 
(SD) kwatsaya:na  pegar en la frente
		to hit in/on the forehead

(C) -kwa:-uhpan  			camino del pelo
		part (in hair)
		cf. kwa:- 'head', -uhpan (uh-ti) "road"

(C) kwawi-t  				palo, árbol, madera, leña
		tree, wood, firewood
		-kwaw (poss.) nu-kwaw "my wood, my firewood"
		kwahkwawit (pl.) 
		cf. ku(:)- 'tree, wood' (in compounds)
		CN kwawitl (Car.); PN *kwawi 
(SD) kwawi-t

(SD) kwawulu-t  			caolote, cablote (árbol)
		tree sp., big, thick trunk, black fruit, bark used in a drink for diarrhea
		cf. kwawi-t "tree", ulu-t "corncob"
		cf. (C) ku:chiyan

(C) kwa:xi:pets-nah (adj.)  		calvo, frente calvo
		bald, with bald forehead
		cf. kwa:- 'head', "forehead", pets-tik "nude", -nah 'adj.'
		CN quaxipetz (Sim.) "calvo"

(C) kwe:chiwi 	 			picarse (llenarse del gorgojo el maíz, frijol)
		to be eaten be insects, to have weavels
		kwe:chiwi (pres.)
		kwe:chiwi-k (pret.)
		kwe:chih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwe:chua "to grind finely", kwech-tik "finely ground"
		CN cf. cuechtic (Sim.) "molido"
		cf. (SD) kwalu:

(C) kwech-tik (adj.)  			cuexte (masa fina, muy molido)
		finely ground, powdery
		ye:k nemi kwechtik "it is very finely ground" (está bien fina la masa) 
		cf. kwe:chua  "to grind finely"
		CN cuechtic (Sim.) "molido", kwechtik (UC) "cosa muy molida"

(C) kwe:chua (t.v.)  			repasar (maíz) (moler mucho, refinar, desmostolar)
		to grind very finely
		kwe:chua (pres.)
		kwe:chuh (pret.)
		kwe:chuh-tuk  (perf.) ni-k-kwe:chuh-a "I have already ground it finely"
		cf. kwe:chiwi (i.v.) "to be eaten by weavels"; kwech-tik "finely ground"
		cf. ta-kwe:chua "to be grinding finely"
		CN kwe:choa (Car.) "moler mucho"

(C) kwechwah  			víbora cascabel
		rattlesnake
		kwehkwechwah (pl.) 
		CN cuech (Sim.) "especie de serpiente cascabel"
(SD) kwechwah
(C) mu-kwehkwe:lua (r.v., redup.) 		culebrear, pandearse
		to wind, to wriggle, to bend, to curve
		mu-kwehkwe:lua (pres.)
		mu-kwehkwe:luh (pret.)
		mu-kwehkwe:luh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwe:liwi "to curve,  to be bent"; kwe:lua "to fold, to bend" 
		CN cueloa (Sim.) "curvar, doblar"
		cf. (SD) mu-kwehkwetua "to have a cramp, to wind"

(C) mu-kwehkwetua (r.v., redup.) 		tener calambre, culebrear, curcuvear
		to have a cramp, to wind, to curve
		mu-kwehkwetua (pres.)
		mu-kwehkwetuh (pret.)
		mu-kwehkwetuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) mu-kwehkwe:lua "to wind, to wriggle"

(C) kwe:liwi (i.v.)  				pandearse
		to bend, to curve
		kwe:liwi (pres.)
		kwe:liwi-k (pret.)
		kwe:lih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mu-kwehkwe:lua "to wind, to curve", kwe:l-nah "curved, bent", kwe:lua "to fold, 			to bend"
		CN kweliwi (UC) "torcerse"; cueliui (Mol.) "torcerse"
(SD) kwe:liwi

(C) kwe:l-nah  				pando, cuchu, pandadura
		bent, curved
		kwehkwe:lnah (pl.) 
		cf. kwe:liwi "to bend"
(SD) kwe(:)l-nah

(SD) kwe:lpachua (t.v.)  			doblar
		to fold
		kwe:lpachua (pres.) ni-k-kwe:lpachua "I'm folding it" 
		kwe:lpachuh (pret.)
		kwe:lpachuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwe:l-nah "bent, curved", kwe:liwi "to curve, bend", pachua "to hold down, to 				press, flatten"
		cf. ta-kwe:lpachua "to be folding"
		CN cuelpachoa (Sim.) "doblar"

(SD) kwe:lua (t.v., r.v.)  			doblar(se), pandear(se)
		to bend, to curve, to fold
		kwe:lua (pres.) mu-kwe:lua "it bends", ki-kwe:lua "(he) bends it"
		kwe:luh (pret.)
		kwe:luh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwe:liwi (i.v.) "to bend, curve", kwe:l-nah "bent, 
		curved", -kwehkwe:lua "to wind, to bend"
		CN cueloa (Xim.) "curvar, doblar"

(C) kwe:ntia (t.v., r.v.)  			acobijar(se), encobijar(se), enchivar(se)
		to cover (with a blanket)
		kwe:ntia (pres.)
		kwe:ntih (pret.) ni-mu-kwe:ntih "I covered myself", 
		ni-k-kwe:ntih "I covered him"
		kwe:ntih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-ke:ntia "to cover (someone), to be covering"
		cf. kwe:n-yu "blanket", -tia 'caus.'
(SD) kwe:ntia

(SD) -kwe:n-yu  				cobija, chiva
		blanket
		nu-kwe:n-yu "my blanket"
		-kwehkwe:n-yu (pl.) 
		cf. kwe:ntia "to cover" 
		CN (?) cf. cuemitl (Sim.) "cuadro de tierra, camellón", no-cuen "mi predio"

(C) kwepa (t.v., r.v.)  				devolver, regresar, volver
		to return, to return something
		kwepa (pres.)
		kwep-ki (pret.) ni-k-kwep-ki "I returned it", ni-mu-kwep-ki "I returned"
		kwep-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwepilia "to return something to someone"
		CN kwepa (Car.) "volver"
(SD) kwepa

(C) kwepilia (t.v., applic.)   			devolver (algo a alguien)
		to return (something to someone)
		kwepilia (pres.) ni-k-kwepilia "I give it back to him" (nikwepiliyaʔ)
		kwepilih (pret.)
		kwepilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwepa "to return", -(i)lia 'applic.'
		CN cuepilia (Sim.) "devolver, restituir lo que es de otro" 
(SD) kwepilia

(SD) kwerda(h)  				cuerda
		rope, cord
		i-kwerdah-yu (poss.) "his rope" 
		kwerdas (pl.) 
		Sp. cuerda

(C) kwerpoh  					cuerpo 
		body
		Sp. cuerpo

(C) kwesal-in  					guara (pájaro como perico)
		bird sp., like a parrot 
		kwehkwesalin (pl.) 

(C) kwetax-ti  					cuero
		leather
		-kwetax (poss.) nu-kwetax "my leather" 
		CN cuetlaxtli (Sim.); PN *kwətax-
(SD) kwetax-ti

(C) kwetes  					cohete 
		fireworks, skyrocket 
		kwehkwetes (pl.) 
		Sp. cohetes

(SD) kweya-t  					enagua, refajo, nagua, falda
		skirt, native skirt
		-kwey (poss.) nu-kwey "my skirt"
		kwehkweyat (pl.) 
		CN kwe:itl (Car.); PN *kwe:y(V)-
		cf. (C) kwe:yi-t

(C) kwe:yi-t  					nagua, enagua, falda, refajo
		skirt, native skirt
		-kwe:y (poss.) nu-kwe:y "my skirt", i-kwe:y "her skirt" nuhnu-kwe:y "my skirts", ihi-			kwe:y "her skirts" 
		kwehkwe:yit (pl.) 
		CN kwe:itl (Car.)
		cf. (Sim.) kweya-t

(SD)  kweyudu(h)   				cuelludo, uno que tiene cuello (uno que tiene 							palancas, influencias)
		person who has influential connections
		Sp. cuelludo

(C) kwi (t.v.)  					agarrar
		to grab, to snatch, to take
		kwi (pres.)
		kwih (pret.) ki-kwih-ke-t "they took it"
		kwih-tuk (perf.)
		CN kwi (Car.) "tomar"
(SD) kwi
(C) kwidado  					cuidado
		careful, care
		ma: ni-k-ta:lih kwidado "let me be careful!"

(SD) kwihkwal  				banqueta
		small bench
		-kwihkwal (poss.) 
		kwihkwikwal (pl.) 

(SD) kwikwilih-tuk (adj.)  		color florido, pinto, cualquier cosa con varios colores
		plaid, motley, spotted, anything with several colors
		cf. kwikwilua "to paint various colors", kwikwil-nah "spotted"
		CN cf. cuicuiltic (Sim.) "de varios colores"

(C) kwikwil-nah  			pintado (de varios colores), saradito, penguito motley, 		of more than one color
		cf. kwikwil-tsin "of several colors", kwikwilua "to paint several colors"
		CN cf. cuicuiltic (Sim.) "de varios colores"
(SD) kwikwil-nah 	de varios colores, gris
		of several colors, grey

(C) kwikwil-tsin  			pintado de varios colores
		of several colors
		cf. kwikwil-nah "of several colors", kwikwilua "to paint several colors"

(C) kwikwilua (t.v)			 pintar de varios colores (rayas, trenchas, hacer dibujos)
		to paint different colors, to make lines, figures, designs
		kwikwilua (pres.)
		kwikwiluh (pret.) ki-kwikwiluh "she painted it varied colors" 
		kwikwilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. kwikwil-nah "painted several colors", kwikwil-tsin "painted various colors", 			kwikwilih-tuk "spotted"
		CN cf. (i) ʔkwiloa (Car.) "escribir, pintar"

(C) kwil-in  				lombriz, gusano
		worm
		kwihkwilin (pl.) 
		cf. kwikwilua "to paint different colors, to make lines" 
		CN okwilin (Car.)
(SD) kwil-in

(SD) kwilin medidor  			medidor (lombriz)
		inch-worm
		cf. kwil-in "worm", Sp. medidor "measurer"

(SD) kwilu:ni (?)  			palo que echa flores
		tree sp., from which one gets flowers (?)

(C) kwisna:wahtepe:-t  		Cerro de Cuisnahuat (un volcancito) 
		Cuisnahuat Mountain (name of a small mountain)
		cf. kwisna:wa-t "Cuisnahuat", tepe:-t "mountain"

(C) kwisna:wa-t  			Cuisnahuat (nombre de pueblo)
		Cuisnahuat (town name)
		cf. na:wa-t "Pipil, Nahuate"
		(note: the local folk etymologies are, 1) kwis "cuatrillo" (?) + -na:wat "Pipil (the 				language)", or 2) kwis- "cuatrillo" (?), nah- "four" (cf. na:wi "four") + u:wa-t 				"cane".)

(C) -kwitapil  				cola
		tail
		i-kwitapil "its tail"
		cf. kwita-t "excrement", (?) -pil '(frozen) diminutive' 
		CN cuitlapilli (Sim.)

(C) kwita-t  				estiercol, exremento, caca
		excrement, dung
		i-kwit kawayuh "horse manure, horse excrement"
		cf. ikwit-puyu "titilcuite (stinking chicken excrement)" 
		CN kwitlatl (Car.); PN *kwitla-
(SD) kwita-t

(SD) kwitawululuh-tsin  		escarabajo
		scarab, (dung)beetle
		kwihkwitawululuhtsin (pl.) 
		cf. kwita-t "excremento", ululua "to roll", -tsin 'diminutive' 

(C) -kwitaxkul  			tripas, intestino
		intestine(s)
		nu-kwitaxkul "my intestine(s)" 
		cf. kwita-t "excrement"
		CN cuitlaxcolli (Sim.)
(SD) kwitaxkul 	tripa pequeña de animal 
		the small intestine of animals

(Teotepeque) kwixin  			lagartija
		lizard

(C) kwix-ti  				gavilán
		hawk
		kwihkwixti (pl.) 
		CN cuixin (Mol.) "milano" (ave)
L

(SD) labirhen  				Virgen (la Virgen María) 
		Virgin, the Virgin Mary
		Sp. la virgen

(C) la:biyah, la:bi:yah  		Sonsonate (nombre de pueblo) 
		Sonsonate (town name)
		Sp. la villa
		cf. (SD) se(:)ntsuna-t

(SD) ladiar, mu-chiwa  		acostarse de lado (al lado) 
		to lie on ones side, to lean to the side
		Sp. ladear

(C) -ladinah  				vestido
		dress
		nu-ladinah "my dress"
		Sp. ladina "Ladina, non-Indian woman"

(SD) lagartu, lagarto    		lagarto
		alligator, cayman
		Sp. lagarto

(SD) lagriyuh 				adobe, ladrillo
		adobe, brick
		Sp. ladrillo (lagriyo local pronunciatión)

(C) la:guh  				lago
		lake
		Sp. lago

(SD) laisla  				isla (laíslaʔ)
		island
		Sp. la isla

(C) lala  				naranja (lalaʔ)
		orange
		-lala (poss.) nu-lala "my orange" 
		lahlala (pl.) 
		Sp. naranja
(SD) lala

(SD) lala-lima(h), lala-li:ma(h)  	lima 
		lemon
		cf. lala "orange", Sp. lima "lemon"

(C) -lama  				abuela
		grandmother
		nu-lama "my grandmother"  (nulamaʔ)
		cf. lamah- "old woman"
		CN cf. ilama(tl) (Sim.) "vieja, anciana"

(SD) lama:-chin  			"old woman"; see lamah, lama-t

(SD) lamah, lama-t, lama:-chin  	anciana
		old woman
		lahlamatket, lamatket, lamahchichinmet (pl.) 
		CN ilama(tl) (Sim.) "vieja, anciana"
		cf. (C) lamah-tsin

(C) lamah-mich-in  			ilama (pescado)
		fish sp., very thin, looks like a snake 
		cf. lamah- "old woman", michin "fish" 
		cf. alak michin "ilama fish"
(SD) lamah-mich-in

(C) lamah-tepe:-t  			Volcán de Izalco
		Izalco Volcano
		cf. lamah- "old woman", tepe:-t "mountain"

(C) lamah-tsin  			anciana, viejita
		old woman
		lahlamahchinmet, lahlamahtsitsinmet (pl.) 
		cf. lamah- "old woman", -tsin 'diminutive' 
		CN ilama(tl) (Sim.) "vieja, anciana"
		cf. (SD) lamah, lama-t, lama:-chin

(SD) lama-t "old woman"; see lamah, lama:-chin

(SD) la:nah  				lana
		wool
		Sp. lana

(SD) lapis  				lápiz 
		pencil
		Sp. lápiz

(SD) lawrél  				laurel (árbol) 
		laurel tree
		Sp. laurel

(SD) lechuga(h)  			lechuga 
		lettuce
		Sp. lechuga

(SD) leer, -chiwa  			leer
		to read
		Sp. leer

(C) lehi:yah  				siete-camisa (árbol)
		tree sp., ashes from this tree's wood are used to get stains out of clothes
		Sp. lejía "lye"

(SD) lehiya(h)  			lejía
		lye
		Sp. lejía

(C) le:keme-t  				palo pito (le:gemet) 
		tree sp. (with red beans)
		cf. (SD) ku:lekemet

(SD) lengwah  			lengua (la lengua indígena)
		the native language
		Sp. lengua

(SD) lengwah-baka(h)  		lengua-de-vaca (un monte, planta de campo) 
		plant sp., a wild plant, "cow's tongue"
		Sp. lengua (de) vaca

(SD) leruh  				blero, bledo (planta con brotones como espinaca, 							amarguito en sopa)
		plant sp., eaten in soup, somewhat bitter, with sprouts like spinach
		Sp. bledo (blero local pronunciatión)

(SD) letra(h), -chiwa  			escribir
		to write
		Sp. letra

(SD) lihero  				rápido
		quick, fast
		x-u lihero "hurry, go fast" (andale!)
		Sp. ligero

(C) lihlik-tsin  				lijlicse, clisclis (gavilancillo, anuncia el verano)
		hawk sp., small hawk; indicates summer is coming
		lihlihliktsin (pl.) 
		cf. liklik "small hawk" in Mayan languages (possibly onomatopoetic)

(C) lime:tah  				guixte (pedazo de vidrio)
		piece of broken glass
		Sp. limeta "bottle" 
(SD) limetah

(SD) limón  				limón
		lime
		Sp. limón

(SD) limosna(h)  			ofrenda 
		offering, alms
		Sp. limosna

(SD) limunsiyu(h)  			limoncillo (árbol) (limuŋsiyu(h)) 
		tree sp., "small lime" tree
		Sp. limoncillo

(SD) linguda(h)  			chismosa
		gossip, gossipy woman
		Sp. lenguda

(SD) liryu, lírio, líria, líriu			lirio 
		lily
		Sp. lirio
	
(SD) loko	loco
		crazy
		Sp. loco
	
(SD) lora(h) 					lora, loro
		parrot
		Sp. lora

(SD) luhlun  					ronrón (clase de escarabajo)
		insect sp., june bug (?) (kind of flying beetle)
		Sp. ronron

(SD) lumpe 			lumpe (trampa o red para atrapar pescados, atarrayitas con 						bolsa de cordel o nailon, redondo con bejuco o alambre en su 					boca (lumpeʔ)
		a fish trap or small net with a vine or wire mouth and bag/net of cord or nylon
	
(SD) -lunár 					lunar
		mole
		i-lunár "his/her mole"
		Sp. lunar
	
(C) luteranah 					creyente (protestante (?))
		believer, Protestant (?)
		Sp. luterano

M

(C) ma: si, ojala 	que, que (funciona como 'imperativo' or 'exhortativo', como el 					subjuntivo español)
		if, oh that, wish that (functions as an  'imperative' or 'exhortative', like the subjunctive 		in Spanish)
		ma: xi-k-chiwa "let him do it, he should do it!"
		ma: na ni-k-piya nu-mediyuh ni-k-kwa-skiya se: nu-karruh
		if I I-it-have my-money I-it-buy-COND a my-car "If I had money I would buy a car"
	
(SD) ma:,	 maka
		(cf. maka)

(C, SD) ma:-, mah- 	'mano' (en palabras compuestas)
		'hand' (in compounds)
		cf. -mey "hand"
	
(C) mache  	machete (mache?)
		machete
		-mache (poss.) nu-mache "my machete" Sp. machete
(SD) mache
	
(C) machi:tuh 		macho, mula, muleto, mular
		mule
		Sp. machito

(SD) machorra(h)	machorral (bosque de muchos árboles  chiquitos con muchas espinas, 				con palos caidos y muchavegetacion, muy enredado y revuelto)
		thicket (?), very thick and cluttered forest with lots  of small trees, thorns, fallen trees, 		vegetation

(C) machtia (t.v., r.v.) ensenar, aprender
		to teach, to learn
		machtia (pres.)
	machtih  (pret.) ni-k-machtih "I  taught  it", ni-mu-machtih "I learned it"
	machtih-tuk (perf.)
	cf. mati "to know", -tia 'caus.'
	CN machtia (Car.); PN *machtia
(SD) machtia

(SD) machu(h)	macho
		male, masculine
		Sp. macho

(SD) magrastra(h)	madrastra
		stepmother
		Sp. madrastra (magrastra local pronunciation)

(SD) magrina(h)	madrina
		godmother
		Sp. madrina (magrina local pronunciation)

(C, SD) mah-, ma:- 	'mano' (en palabras compuestas) 'hand' (in compounds)
		cf. -mey "hand"

(C) -mahkul  	brazo (del codo al hombro) 
		arm (from elbow including shoulder) 
		nu-mahkul "my arm"
		cf. mah- 'hand'
		CN cf. macolli (Mol.) "brazo medida del hombro a la mano" 

(SD) mahkul brazo y hombro
		arm and shoulder
		mahmahkul (pl.) 

(C) mahmahtsal-kutu:na (t.v., incorp.) 	cortar ramas
		to cut branches
		ni-k-mahmahtsalkutu:na "I cut off its branches" 
		cf. mahtsal "branch", kutu:na "to cut"
		cf. mahma:kutu:na "to cut off branches, hands"

(C) mahmaka (t.v., redup.) repartir
		to distribute, to pass out
		cf. maka "to give"

(C) mahma:-kutu:na (t.v., incorp.)	cortar ramas, manos 
		to cut off branches, hands
		mahma:kutu:na (pres.)
		mahma:kutu:n (pret.)
		mahma:kutu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ma:- 'hand', kutu:na "to cut"
		cf. mahmahtsalkutu:na "to cut branches"
		CN cf. macotona (Sim.) "cortar la mano a alguien" (SD) mahma:-kutu:na

(SD) mahma:tami (i.v.) 	desmayarse 
		to faint, to pass out
		mahma:tami (pres.)
		mahma:tami-k (pret.)
		mahma:tan-tuk (perf.)
		cf.(?) ma:- 'hand', tami "to end"

(C) mahma:-tu:ka (t.v., incorp.) caminar a tientas (sin ver)
		to feel one's way along without seeing
		cf. ta-mahma:tu:ka "to be feeling one's way along", cf. ma:tu:ka "to touch, to feel"
		CN cf. matoca (Sim.) "tocar con la mano"

(C) mahma:tsu (n., adj.) 	mamaso (masa de tortilla  deshecha, molida, con alguaxte 			(semilla de ayote /calabaza/), mojada y amontonada; una tortialla hecha de esta masa; 		cualquier cosa torcida y amontonada)
		a kind of dough made from crumbed tortillas and pumpkin seeds, a tortilla made of 		this dough; anything twisted and piled up
		CN cf. matsoa (Mol.) "hacer bollos"
(SD) mahma:tsu

(C) mahma:waltia (t.v., redup.) 	untar
		to smear, to grease
		mahma:waltia (pres.)
		mahma:waltih (pret.) mahma:walith-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ma:waltia "to smear, to grease"
(C) mahmawi (i.v.) 	tener miedo
		to fear, to be afraid
		mahmawi (pres.)
		mahmaw-ki (pret.)
		mahmaw-tuk (perf.)
		CN mawi (Car.)
(SD) mahmawi

(C) mahtak-ti		diez (palabra arcáica) 
		ten (archaic word)
		cf. (?) mah- 'hand'
		CN ma?tlaktli (Car.)

(C) -mahtsal 	rama
		branch
		i-mahtsal "its branch" 
		i-mahmahtsal (pl.) "its branches" cf. mah- 'hand'
		CN cf. (?) tzallantli (Sim.) "cuello, garganta, puerto"

(SD) maka, ma: 	'imperativo', 'exhortativo', 'imperativo negativo'
		'imperative', 'exhortative', 'negative imperative'
		maka xi-k-chiwa "don't do it!"
		CN maca (Sim.)
		cf. (C) ma:

(C) maka (t.v.) dar; castigar to give; to punish
		maka (pres.) ni-k-maka "I give it" (nikmaga?)
		maka-k (pret.) (sometimes -mak)
		maka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mahmaka "to distribute"; maka ulyuh "to baptize"
		CN maka (Car.); PN *maka 
(SD) maka (t.v., r.v.)
		ni-k-maka-k "I gave it"
		mu-maka "to give oneself something, to put/throw  something on oneself"
		cf. ta-maka "to be giving, to give something"

(C) maka:nuh 		chuzo (palo para sembrar), coa
		planting stick
		Sp. (?) macano (cf. macana)

(C) maka ulyuh (t.v.) 		buatizar
		to baptize
		maka-k ulyuh (pret.) ni-k-maka-k ulyuh "I baptized him"
		cf. maka "to give", ulyuh "baptism"
		CN cf. (?) ollotl (Sim.) "centro, medio"

(C) ma:kiki:sa (i.v.)  chiflara, silvar
	to whistle
	ma:kiki:sa (pres.)
	ma:kiki:s-ki (pret.)
	ma:kiki:s-tuk (perf.)
	cf. (?) ma:- 'hand', ki:sa "to come out"
	CN cf. tlanquiquici (Mol.)
(SD) ma:kiki:sa (sometimes ma:kiki:si)

(SD) makoya(h)	macolla  
		bunch,	cluster
		Sp. macolla

(C) makpal  	gajo (de guineo), gaja 
		piece or section of fruit 
		cf. (?) ma- 'hand' 
		CN cf. (?) macpalli (Sim.) "la palma de la mano"

(C) ma:kutu  	cutu de la mano, manco
		one-armed, one-handed (person with one hand or arm missing) 
		cf. ma:- 'hand', kutu "short"
		CN cf. macotic (Sim.) "manco" (SD) ma:kutu

(SD) ma:kwahkwa 	garrapatilla
		a small tick sp.
		cf. (?) ma:- 'hand', kwa "to eat"

(C) ma:kwil	cinco
		five
		cf. ma:- 'hand',  kwi "to grab", -l 'passive nominalization' (literally "something 			grabbed with the hand" (?))
		CN macuilli (Sim.); PN *ma:kwil

(SD) ma:kwil (palabra arcaica)  	centavito; cinco
		cent (small coin); five (archaic word)

(C) ma:kwil-iswa-t  	maquiligua, miquilisgua, maquiligue (arbol) 
		tree sp., leaf of five sections used in construction
		cf. ma:kwil "five", iswa-t "leaf"
(SD) ma(:)kwil-iswa-t

(SD) ma:lachua (t.v.,  r.v.) 	aguarapar, aplastar(se), reducirse una parte del cuerpo o de la 			planta
		to flatten, to reduce, to shrivel in part
		(note: the meaning of the local Spanish adjective guarapo is the sour smell from bad 		sugarcane or sections of cane that are worthless because they are dry, juiceless and ill 		formed.)
		ma:lachua (pres.) ki-ma:lachua "(he) is flattening it", 
		mu-ma:lachua "it is flattened"
		ma:lachuh (pret.)
		ma:lachuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsin-mahma:lach "with flat buttocks" (sin nalga)

(C) malaka-t 		malacate (huso)
		spindle
		-malaka-w (poss.) nu-malaka-w "my spindle"
		mahmalakat (pl.) 
		cf. mali:na "to twist (thread)"
		CN malacatl (Sim.); PN *malaka-
(SD) malaka-t

(SD) maldiktár, -chiwa	maldecir
		to curse
		Sp. maldictar (cf. maldecir)

(C) mali:na (t.v.) 	torcer, torcer pita (mecate)
		to twist, to twist string
		mali:na (pres.)
		mali:n (pret.) ni-k-mali:n-ki-ya "I already twisted it" mali:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-mali:na "to be twisting (something)"
		CN mali:na (Car.)
(SD) ma:lina (t.v.)  	retorcer pita, torcer
		to twist string, to twist
		ma:lin(-ki) (pret.)

(C) ma:luh	malo
		bad
		Sp. malo
(SD) ma:luh	malo, malvado
		bad, evil

(C) mamalia (t.v., r.v.)	enredar(se) to get tangled, to tangle 
		mamalia (pres.) mu-mamalia "it gets tangled" 
		mamalih (pret.) ni-mu-mamalih "I got tangled up", 
		ni-k-mamalih "I tangled it"
		mamalih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mali:na "to twist (string)
		CN cf. mamali (Sim.) "hender, meterse"; mamali (UC) "barrenar, taladrar"

(C) ma:mé		mamey (ma:méʔ)
		mamey fruit
		-ma:me (poss.) 	nu-ma:mé "my mamey"
		Sp. (?) mamey
(SD) ma:mé:h 

(C) -ma:mis-yu 	codo
		elbow
		nu-ma:mis-yu "my elbow"
		nu-mahma:misyu (pl.) "my elbows" 
		cf. ma:- 'hand', -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) man (conj.) 	pero, y ahora (?)
		and now, but (?)

(C) -ma:n 	hermano mayor 
		elder brother
		nu-má:n "my elder brother"
		-ma:nmet (pl.)		nu-ma:n-met "my elder brothers" (numa:nmet)
		 Sp. hermano
		cf. (SD) manu "brother"

(C) mana (t.v.) 	cocer, cocinar
		to cook, to boil (cook in water)
		mana (pres.) ni-k-mana "I cook it"
		man-ki (pret.)
		man-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-mana "to cook (something)", ta-man-ti "cooked"
		CN cf. mana (Car.) "poner en el suelo"; mana (Sim.) "darse, presentar, poner en el 		suelo, hacer tortillas"
(SD) mana 

(SD) mandaderu(h)	mensajero, mandadero
		messenger
		Sp. mandadero

(SD) mandíl  		mandil, delantal
		apron
		Sp. mandil

(SD) mangah  manga
		sleeve
		Sp. manga

(C) manguh  		mango 
		mango
		mahmanguh (pl.) 
		Sp. mango
(SD) manguh

(SD) mansana(h)  	manzana de adán  [maŋsanah] 
		Adam's apple
		Sp. manzana

(SD) mansaniya(h)  	manzanilla  [maŋsaniyah] 
		camomile
		Sp. manzanilla

(SD) mansuh  manso
		tame, gentle
		Sp. manso

(SD) mante:ka  	manteca, grasa  [mante:gaʔ] 
		grease, lard
		i-mante:ka-yu "its grease"
		Sp. manteca

(SD) -manu(h) 	 hermano
		brother
		nu-manu 'my brother"
		manuh-wan (pl.) nu-manuhwan "my brothers" 
		Sp. hermano
		cf. (C) -ma:n "elder brother"

(SD) manyoso(h)  	ladron
		thief
		Sp. manoso

(C) ma:pach-in  mapache
		raccoon
		mahma:pachin (pl.) 
		cf. ma:- 'hand', (?) pa:ka "to wash", -in 'absolutive' 
		CN mapach (Sim.) "oso lavandero"
(SD) ma:pach-in

(C) mu-ma:pa:ka (r.v., incorp.)  	lavarse
		to wash oneself
		mu-ma:pa:ka (pres.) ni-mu-ma:pa:ka "I wash myself"
		mu-ma:pa:ka-k (pret.)
		mu-ma:pa:ka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ma:- 'hand', pa:ka "to wash"
		CN mapaca (Sim.) "limpiar las manos"
(C) mu-ma:pa:ka (r.v., incorp.)  lavarse las manos 
		to wash ones hands

(SD) -ma:pa:lah  	tenaza
		crab's pincher
		i-ma:pa:lah ne tekwisi "the crab's pincher" 
		cf. ma:- 'hand', (?) perhaps Sp. pala "shovel"

(C) mu-ma:pe:lua (r.v., incorp.)  	abrir las manos, las pinzas 
		to open one's hands, pinchers
		mu-ma:pe:lua (pres.)
		mu-ma:pe:luh (pret.)
		mu-ma:pe:luh-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. ma:- 'hand', pe:lua "to open"
		cf. (SD) mu-ma:pelua "to crawl"

(SD) mu-ma:pelua (r.v., incorp.)  	gatear, andar a gatas
		to crawl
		mu-ma:pelua (pres.)
		mu-ma:peluh (pret.)
		mu-ma:pelih-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. ma:- 'hand', pe(:)lua "to open"
		cf. (C) mu-ma:pe:lua "to open one's hands, pinchers"

(C) ma:pilich-nah  	arrugado (de la mano)
		wrinkled (hand)
		cf. ma:- 'hand', pilichnah "wrinkled"

(C) -ma:pipil		dedo (de mano)
		finger
		-ma:pipil (poss.)  nu-ma:pipil "my finger"
		-mahma:pil (pl.) 
		cf. ma:- 'hand', pi:pil "son, boy"
		CN ma?pilli (Car.)
(SD) -ma:pipil
	-mahma:pipil (pl.) 

(SD) marchitu(h)  	marchito
	withered
	Sp. marchito

(SD) mare(y)o(h)  	mareo, mareado
	dizziness
	Sp. mareo

(C) mariyah-tepe:-t  Las Marias (canton de Cuisnahuat)
	Las Marias (a village in the municipality of Cuisnahuat)
	cf. Sp. Maria,  tepe:-t "mountain"
(C, SD) mas (conj.)	 mas
		moreover, in addition, more than

(C, SD) mas		más
		more (comparative), more (adv.)

(C)  masa:-kili-t   	oloroco, loroco (bejuco, verdura que se cria entre las milpas, huele, se 				come)
		vine sp., smells good, edible, grouws in the cornfields
		cf. masa:-t "deer", kili-t "chipilin plant"
(SD) masa:-kili-t

(C) masa:-ku(:)wa-t		masacuate (boa)
		boa constrictor
		mahmasa:ku(:)wat (pl.) 
		cf. masa:-t "deer", ku:wa-t "snake"
		CN macacoatl (Sim.)
(SD) masa:-ku:wa-t

(C) masa:-t  venado
		deer
		-masa:-w (poss.)  nu-masa:-w "my deer" 
		mahmasa:t (pl.) 
		masa:-tsin "small deer" (venadito)
		CN masa:tl (Car.); PN *masa:-
(SD) masa:-t
		masa:-chín "small deer" (venadito)

(SD) masa:wa  	Santa Catarina Masahuat (nombre de pueblo)
		Santa Catarina Masahuat (town name)
		cf. masa:-t "deer"

(C) ma:skrah  		mascara (para bailes)
		mask (for dances)
		cf. i:xma:skrah "mask"
		Sp. mascara
(SD) ma:skrah

(C) ma:sulu:n-tuk (adj.) 	 hinchado de la mano
		with swollen hand(s)
		cf. ma:- 'hand', sulu:ni "to swell", -tuk 'perf.'

(SD) -matah  		mata
		stock, stem, plant
		i-matah giniyah "banana plant/tree"
		Sp. mata

(C) ma:tal-in  		matalin (bejuquito en chaguites)
		vine sp., small, found in watery places, purple and white leaf, used for ornamentation
		mahma:talin (pl.) cf. (?) ma:- 'hand' 
		CN  cf.  matlalin (Sim.) "verde oscuro, verde fuerte, color azul"
(SD) ma:tal-in

(C) ma:ta-t  		matate (red)
		net, net bag
		-ma:ta-w (poss.) nu-ma:ta-w "my net" 
		mahma:tat (pl.) 
		a:ta-tsin "small net bag" CN ma:tlatl (Car.) "red"
(SD) ma:ta-t

(C) -ma:taxkal  	palma (de la mano) 
		palm of the hand 
		nu-ma:taxkal "my palm" 
		-mahma:taxkal (pl.) 
		nuhnu-ma:taxkal "my palms" 
		cf. ma:- 'hand', taxkal "tortilla, rigua"
(SD) -ma:taxkal

(C) mati (t.v.)  	saber
		to know
		mati (pres.)
		mat-ki (pret.)      
		mat-tuk (perf.) 
		xi-k-mati "try it, taste it!" 
		CN mati (Car.); PN *mati
(SD) mati

(C) mu-mati (r.v.)  	acostumbrarse
		to get used to, accustomed to 
		ni-mu-mat-ki-ya "I already got used to it" 
		cf. mati "to know"

(C) ma:ti:lua (t.v.)  	repellar, alisar (como pared)
		to rub down, to smooth, to finish (e.g. a wall) 
		ma:ti:lua (pres.) ni-k-ma:ti:lua "I'm smoothing it out" 
		ma:ti:luh (pret.)
		ma:ti:luh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ma:- 'hand'
		CN matiloa (Sim.) "untar, frotar"
		cf. (SD) ma:tilua "to pound"

(SD) ma:tilua  		machucar
		to pound, to mash
		ma:tilua (pres.)
		ma:tiluh (pret.)
		ma:tiluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ma:- 'hand'
		CN matiloa (Sim.) "untar, frotar"
		cf. (C) ma:ti:lua "to smooth, to finish, to rub"
	
(C) matraka		matraca
		matraca, wooden rattle
		Sp. matraca

(SD) -ma:tsitsin 	deditos del cangrejo
		crab's feet
		i-ma:tsitsin ne tekwisih "the crab's feet"
		cf. ma:- 'hand', -tsin 'diminutive'
		cf. (C) meytsitsin

(C) ma:waltia (t.v.) 	 untar
		to smear, to annoint, to grease
		ma:waltia (pres.)
		ma:waltih (pret.)
		ma:waltih-tuk (perf.)
		ma: ki-ma:walti "let him grease it!" (que lo unte!)

(C) ma:wiltiyani  	juguetón
		playful person
		cf. m- 'reflexive', a:waltia "to play", -ni 'agent' 
		CN mauiltiani (Sim.) "burlón"

(SD) -max  	vellos (palabra obscena)
		pubic hair (obscene)
		i-max "his/her pubic hair"
		cf. imax-kabayuh "insect sp. (hairy)"
		CN cf. maxactli (Sim.) "entre pierna, entre muslo" 
		cf. (C) -maxak "groin"

(C) -maxak  los encajes (ingle)  
		groin
		nu-maxak "my groin"
		CN maxactli (Sim.) "entre pierna, entre muslo"

(C) maxta-t 	 maxtate, mastate (ceñidor)
		loincloth, breechclout
		-maxta-w (poss.) i-maxta-w "his loincloth"
		cf. (?) -max "pubic hair", -maxak "groin"
		CN maxtlatl (Sim.) "ceñidor", maxtlatl (Mol.) "bragas" 
(SD) maxta-t
		mahmaxtat (pl.) 

(SD) maxtra(h) 	 maestra
		teacher (woman)
		Sp. maestra

(SD) maxtru(h)  	maestro
		teacher (man), master
		Sp. maestro

(Comasagua, Teotepeque)   -may  	mano 
		hand
		cf. ma(h)- in compounds
		CN ma:itl (Car.)
		cf. (C, SD) -mey

(SD) maya  	solo, solamente
		maya kuchi "sleepy head" (dormilón) (literally "only sleeps")

(C) mayan (n.)  	hambre
		hunger
		cf. maya:na "to be hungry"
(SD) mayan

(C) maya:na (i.v.)  	tener hambre
		to be hungry, to hunger
		maya:na (pres.)
		maya:n-ki (pret.) ni-maya:n-ki "I was hungry" [nimaya:ngiʔ]
		maya:n-tuk (perf.)
		CN maya:na (Car.)
(SD) mayana

(C)  ma:ya-t   		talepate (insecto que chupa sangre, tiene pico largo); gorgojo
		bed bug sp.; weevil
		mahma:yat (pl.) 

(C) -ma:yehkan 	 la derecha, mano derecha 
		right, right hand
		cf. ma:- 'hand', (?) yehkan "only" 
		CN mayeccantli (Sim.) "mano derecha"

(SD) mayordomi(y)a(h)  	cofradia 
		confraternity, religious organization
		Sp. mayordomia

(SD) mayordomo(h)  		mayordomo(de la cofradia) 
		mayordomo, religious steward in confraternity 
		Sp. mayordomo

(SD) medida(h) 	 medida 
		measurement, measure 
		Sp. medida

(C) me:diyuh 		 dinero
		money
		Sp. medio (from medio real)

(C)  mehmela   	memela (algo largo y oval; una clase de tortilla larga y ovala)
		long and oval-shaped thing; a kind of tortilla which is long and oval
		mehmehmela (pl.)  [mehmehmelaʔ]
		cf. mela:wa "to spread out, to lay down"
		CN cf. melactic (Sim.) "alargado"
		cf. (SD) memela "memela tortilla"

(C) mekapal  		mecapal
		tumpline
		-mekapal (poss.)  nu-mekapal "my tumpline" 
		mehmekapal (pl.) 
		cf. meka-t "string, cord"
		CN mecapalli (Sim.)
(SD) mekapal  (megapal)

(C) meka-t  		bejuco; pita, mecate; pene (obsceno) 
		vine; string, cord, rope; penis (obscene) 
		-meka-w (poss.)  nu-meka-w "my string" 
		mehmekat (pl.) 
		CN mekatl (Car.)
(SD) meka-t  		bejuco; pita, mecate 
		vine; string, cord, rope

(C) melak-tik  		recto (derecho) 
		straight
		cf. mela:wa "to lay/lie down"; cf. (SD) melawa "to straighten"
		CN melactic (Sim.) "derecho, alargado, extendido"

(C) mela:wa (t.v., r.v.) 	 acostar(se)
		to lie down; to lay down
		mela:wa (pres.)
		mela:h  (pret.) ni-mu-mela:h "I lay down", ni-k-mela:h  "I laid it down"
		mela:h-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. melawa (Car.) "enderezar, tender"
		cf. (SD) melawa "enderezar(se), tender(se)"

(SD) melawa (t.v., r.v.)  	enderezar(se), tender(se)
		to straighten out, to stretch out, to shake out, to stand up
		melawa (pres.)
		melaw-ki (pret.) 
		mu-melaw-ki "it straightened out", 
		ki-melaw-ki "he straightened it"
		melaw-tuk (perf.)  
		cf. melak-tik "straight"
		CN melawa (Car.) "enderezar, tender"
		cf. (C) mela:wa "to lie/lay down"

(SD) memech (adj.) 		 memex (llevar a memex), guindado al hombro
		over one's shoulder ((to carry) over the shoulder) 
		CN cf. meme (Sim.) "llevar algo sobre los hombros"
	
(SD) memela  		memela (clase de tortilla)
		a kind of tortilla, small and long
		cf. (C) mehmela

(SD) menora(h)  	segunda capitana (de cofradia) 
		second captainess in confraternity
		Sp. menora

(SD) mentir, -chiwa  		mentir 
		to lie, to prevaricate 
		Sp. mentir

(SD) mentirah  	mentira
		lie, falsehood
		Sp. mentira

(SD) menyadora(h)  		cuchara meneadora 
		large stirring spoon
		Sp. meneadora

(SD) merkadoh 	 mercado
		market
		Sp. mercado

(C) me:s 	 mes
		month
		Sp. mes
(C) me:sah  	mesa 
		table
		Sp. mesa 
(SD) me:sah

(C) meta-t  	piedra de moler (metate)
		quern, metate
		-met (poss.) nu-met "my metate"
		mehmetat (pl.) 
		CN metlatl (Sim.); PN *mətla-
(SD) meta-t

(C, SD) mets- 		'pierna' (en palabras compuestas)
		'leg' (in compounds)
		CN metstli (Car.) "pierna, muslo"

(C) metskalapa  	patojo de un pie (renco, cojo de un pie) 
		lame in one leg
		cf. mets- 'leg'

(C) metskaxil  		encordia, incordio (bola en los encajes) 
		tumor or lump in groin
		cf. mets- 'leg', perhaps (?) Sp. (en)caje
		cf. -metstawiyal-yu

(C) metskelu  		renco
		lame
		cf. mets- 'leg', kelu:na "to break"

(C) -metsku:yu  	pierna, muslo
		thigh, leg from knee to hip 
		nu-metsku:yu "my leg"
		cf. mets- 'leg', ku:yu "stock, stem, plant" 
(SD) -metsku:yu

(C) -metspan  		regazo
		lap
		nu-metspan "my lap"
		cf. mets- 'leg', -pan 'locative'
		cf. metspanua "to cuddle, hold on one's lap"
(SD) -metspan

(C)  metspanua  (t.v.)   	chinear en la pierna (apapachar en el regazo)
		to hold on one's lap, to cuddle
		metspanua (pres.)
		metspanuh (pret.) ki-metspanuh "she held him on her lap"
		metspanuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. metspan "lap, -ua 'passive/caus.'

(C) mets-petu:ni (i.v., incorp.)  	resbalar
		to slide, to slip
		metspetu:ni (pres.)
		metspetu:ni-k (pret.)
		metspetu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mets- 'leg', petu:ni "to slide"

(C) -metstawiyal-yu  		encordia, incordio (en los encajes) 
		tumor or lump in groin
		i-metstawiyal-yu "his lump (in groin)" 
		cf. mets- 'leg', tawiyal "kernel of corn" 
		cf. metskaxil
(SD) -metstawiyal

(C) me:ts-ti  		luna
		moon
		mehme:tsti (pl.) 
		tahku me:tsti "crescent moom" (luna creciente) (cf. tahku "half")      
		kune:t me:tsti "new moon" (cf. kune:t "infant, child")
		CN me:tstli (Car.); PN *me:ts-

(C) me:wa (t.v.)  	desherbar, desyerbar
		to weed, to tear out plants
		me:wa (pres.)
		me:h-ki (pret.) ni-k-me:h-ki "I weeded it"
		me:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-me:wa "to be weeding"
		CN cf. (?) m-e:wa (Car.) "levantarse"; eua (Sim.) "levantarse, irse, partir"
(SD) me:wa
		me:w(-ki) (pret.)
		me:w-tuk (perf.)

(C) -mey 	 mano (la mano y antebrazo), rama, manga, cabo
		hand (hand and forearm), branch, sleeve, handle (some say -me:y)
		nu-mey "my hand"
		ihi-mey (pl.) "his/her hands" 
		nuhnu-mey (pl.) "my hands" 
		i-mey metat "metate's pestle" (mano de piedra de moler) 
		i-meytsitsin "crab's feet" (cf. (SD) ma:tsitsin)
		i-mey "sleeve, handle; his/her hand" 
		cf. ma:- 'hand' (in compounds)
		CN ma:itl (Car.); PN *ma:(y)(V)-
		cf. (Comasagua, Teotepeque) -may 
(SD) -mey
	mehmey (pl.) 

(C) mich-in  		pescado (pescado, pez)
		fish
		-michin (poss.) nu-michin "my fish" 
		mihmichin (pl.) 
		CN michin (Car.); PN *mich-im
(SD) mich-in

(SD) michin-kak-ti  		pejecaite (pez) (michiŋgaktiʔ) 
		fish sp., flat, yellowish, thin and long

(SD) michin-ku(:)wa-t  	anguila (michiŋgu(:)wata) 
		eel
		michin-kuhku(:)wat (pl.) 

(C) mihkwitayan  	letrina
		toilet
		cf. i-mihkwitayan tihlan "Cagadero de Gallina" (name of a mountain) 
		cf. kwita-t "excrement", -yan ('place of' (?))

(C) mihmiki (i.v., redup.)  	marchitarse
		to wither
		mihmiki (pres.)
		mihmiki-k (pret.)
		mihmik-tuk (perf.)
		cf. miki "to die"
(SD) mihmiki

(C) miki (i.v.)  	morir
	to die
	miki (pres.)
	miki-k (pret.)
	mik-tuk (perf.)
	cf. miktia "to kill"
	CN miki (Car.); PN *mɨkɨ
(SD) miki

(C) mikini  		el muerto, cadáver
		corpse, dead person
		cf. miki "to die", -ni 'agent'
		CN cf. miquini (Sim.) "mortal, perecedero"

(C) miktan  	hondo
		deep
		cf. miki "to die", -tan 'place of' 
		CN cf. mictlan (Sim.) "infierno"
(SD) miktan

(C) miktia (t.v.)  	matar
		to kill
		miktia (pres.) ni-k-miktia "I kill it"  (nikmiktiyaʔ) 
		miktih (pret.)
		miktih-tuk (perf.)
		tesu xi-nech-mikti "don't kill me!"
		cf. miki "to die", -tia 'caus.' CN mictia (Sim.); PN *mɨk-tia
(SD) miktia
		cf. mu-miktia "to commit suicide, to kill oneself"

(SD) mu-miktia (r.v.)  	matarse (suicidarse)
		to kill oneself, to commit suicide
		cf. miktia "to kill"

(C) mi:ku  "mico" (brujo, transformador)  (mi:kuʔ)
		witch, sorcerer, transformer (one who changes into an animal)
		Sp. (?) mico

(SD)  mi:ku  		brujo, transformador (que se transforma en animales,            					mayormente en animales domesticos)
		witch,  sorcerer (who transforms himself into animals, mainly domestic ones)

(C) mi:l  	milpa
		milpa, cornfield
		-mi:l (poss.) nu-mi:l "my milpa" 
		mihmi:l (pl.) 
		CN mi:lli (Car.); PN *mi:l-
(SD) mi:l

(C) mi:l  	mil
		thousand
		Sp. mil

(C) mi:ma (t.v.)  	tirar con flecha 
		to shoot with an arrow
		mi:ma (pres.)
		mi:n-ki (pret.) ni-k-mi:n-ki "I shot it (with an arrow)"
		(nikmi:ngiʔ), ki-mi:n-ke-t "they shot it (with an arrow)" (gimi:nget)
		mi:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mi:-t "bow and arrow"
		CN mi:na (Car.); mina (Sim.) "tirarle flechas"

(SD) mi:ma (t.v.)  	tirar, echar
		to throw, to shoot

(SD) mimilaka (i.v., redup.)  		arder (el fuego) 
		for the fire to burn
		mimilaka (pres.)
		mimilaka-k (pret.)
		mimilak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) mimilika

(C) mimilika (i.v., redup.)  		arder (el fuego) 
		for the fire to burn
		mimilika (pres.)
		mimilika-k (pret.)
		mimilika-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (Sim.) mimilaka

	(C) mimil-nah (adj.)  		rollizo (redondo (?)) 
		round (?), sturdy, like a log
		cf. mimilua "to roll"
		CN cf.mimiliuhqui (Sim.), mimiltic (Sim.) "redondo"; mimiltik (UC) "rollizo"

(C) mimilua (t.v., r.v.)  	rodar, rodarse
		to roll
		mimilua (pres.)
		mimiluh (pret.) mu-mimiluh "it rolled", ki-mimiluh "(she) rolled it"
		mimiluh-tuk (perf.)
		CN mimiloa (Sim.) "rodar, extenderse"
(SD) mimilua

(C) mimiya:wa-t  	panal (de avispas)
		wasp's nest
		cf. (?) a:wa-t "bud"
		CN mimiauatl (Sim.) "panal de miel, abeja"
(SD) mimiya:wa-t

(SD) mi:nah  		mina de leña (buen lugar o fuente de leña)
		good location for or source of firewood 
		Sp. mina "mine"

(C) mi:sah 	 misa
		Mass
		Sp. misa 
(SD) mi:sah

(C) mistikili  		mistilicuco (pájaro)  [mistigiliʔ] 
		bird sp., sings mistilikú:kú:

(C) mistu:n  		gato cat 
		mihmistu:n (pl.) 
		mistu:n-tsín "kitten" (gatito)  		i-mistú:n-tsin "his kitten" 
		CN mizton (Sim.)

(SD) mistu:n  		gato, gatillo 
		cat, kitten

(C) mi:-t  	arco y flecha 
		bow and arrow
		-mi:t (poss.)  nu-mí:t "my bow and arrow" 
		cf. mi:ma "to shoot with an ararow"
		CN mi:tl (Car.)

(C) mix-te:n-tuk  	neblinado (aneblinado)
		foggy
		cf. mix-ti "cloud, fog", te:n-tuk "full"
	
(C) mix-ti  	nube, neblina
		cloud, fog 
		mihmixti (pl.) 
		CN mixtli (Car.)
(SD) mix-ti

(C) miyak  		mucho, muchos, bastante, cantidad(es) 
		much, many, a lot
		mihmiyak (pl.) 
		cf. -miyak-wan "family"
		cf. miyak-e:-t "a constellation"
		CN mi(y)ek (Car.); PN *məyak
(SD) miyak
	
(C) -miyak-wan 	 familia
		family
		cf. miyak "many, much", -wan 'poss. pl.'
	
(C) miyak-e:-t  	siete cabritas (constelación)
		a constellation, literally "many beans" (Sp. "seven kid goats")
	
(SD) moho  		moho
		mold, mildew
		Sp. moho (mojo local pronunciation)
	
(SD) mohonero(h)  	mojón (lindero)
		boundary marker
		Sp. mojonero
(SD) mono(h) 		 mono
		monkey
		Sp. mono
	
(SD) mora    		mora
		berry, raspberry, blackberry 
		Sp. mora
	
(SD) morado(h)  	morado
		purple
		Sp. morado

(SD) mo(:)su(h) 	 mozo
		worker, servant, fellow
		Sp. mozo

(C) muchi 	 todo(s)  (muchiʔ) 
		all, everything
		CN mochi (Car.); PN *mochɨ 
(SD) muchi

(C) muhkusuku  	paloma morada, paloma azul
		dove sp. "blue dove", "purple dove"

(SD) muhmulu  	frijol cocido sin sopa, frijol muhuto
		bean cooked without juice
		cf. muhmulu:ntuk "bean cooked without juice"
		cf. mulu:ni "to dry out"
		cf. (C) e:-muhmulu "bean cooked without juice"

(SD) muhmulu:ntuk  		frijol muhuto, frijol cocido sin sopa
		bean cooked without juice
		cf. muhmulu "bean cooked without juice"
		cf. mulu:ni "to dry out", -tuk 'perf.'
		cf. (C) e:-muhmulu "bean cooked without juice"

(C) muhuhtiya (i.v.)  		enmojecearse, enmojecerse (enmohecerse) 
		to mold, to mildew
		muhuhtiya (pres.)
		muhuhtiya-k (pret.) muhuhtiya-k "it got moldy"
		muhuhtiya-tuk (perf.)
		Sp. mojo (cf. moho), -ti-ya 'inchoative'

(SD) mu:ku  		cacarico, camaroncito cascarudo del río  (mu:guʔ)
		small, shelled river shrimp
		-mu:ku (poss.)  nu-mu:ku "my river shrimp"
		muhmu:ku (pl.) 
		cf. (C) a:muku 

(C) mu:lah 	 mula
		mule
		muhmu:lah (pl.) 
		Sp. mula
(SD) mu:lah

(SD) mulata(h)  	ladina 
		ladino woman
		cf. mulatu(h) "ladino"
		Sp. mulata

(SD) mulatu(h)  	ladino, chele (güero, rubio) 
		ladino, fair-complected person muhmulatus (pl.) 
		cf. mulata(h) "ladino woman"
		Sp. mulato

(C) -mulinka  		retoño, cojollo, pichón (brotón) 
		sprout, bud, shoot, tip (of plant) 
		i-mulinka "its sprout"
		cf. mulu:ni "to swell up, to dry out", -ka 'nominalization'

(C) mulki:-t  mulquite (mazorca chiquita, no crecida)
		small, not fully grown ear of corn
		muhmulki:t (pl.) 
		cf. (?) mulu:ni "to swell, to dry up"
		CN mulquitl (Sim.) "retono que sale despues de la siega" 
(SD) mulki-t  (mulkit)
		(perhaps from Sp. mulquite or influenced by it)

(C) muluk-tsin  	molote, tigrillo causel (felino pintado) 
		feline sp., small, spotted
		cf. -tsin 'diminutive'

(SD) mulu:ni (i.v.)  	secarse (p. ej. de frijoles), volarse, soplarse (cosa fina como polvo o 				harina)
		to dry (e.g. of beans), to fly or blow away (e.g. dust, flour, chaff)   
		mulu:ni (pres.)
		mulu:ni-k (pret.)
		mulu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mulu:ni(a) (t.v.) "to dry"
		CN cf. molo:ni (Car.) "manar, extenderse"; PN *molo:nV "to boil"
		cf. (C) mulu:nia (t.v.) "to swell, to puff up"

(SD) mulu:ni(a) 	(t.v. (?))  secar, soplar (cosa fina como harina o polvo)
		to dry, to blow (something fine like flour or dust)
		mulu:ni, mulu:nia (pres.) (?)
		mulu:n-ki (pret.) ni-k-mulu:n-ki "I blew it, I dried it"
		mulu:ntuk (perf.)
		cf. mulu:ni (i.v.) "to dry, to blow"
		CN cf. molonia (Sim.) "cordar la lana"
		cf. (C) mulu:nia "esponjar, arar"

(C) mulu:nia 		(t.v.) esponjar, arar
		to swell, to puff up, for a bird to ruffle its feathers; to plow
		mulu:nia (pres.)
		mulu:nih (pret.) ni-k-mulu:nih "I puffed it, I plowed it"
		mulu:nih-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. molonia (Sim.) "cordar la lana, destrizar las plumas" 
		cf. (SD) mulu:ni(a) "to dry, to blow"

(C) mumulutsa 	(t.v., redup.) echar humo (como un fuego que empieza)
		to smoke (as a fire trying to get started)
		mumulutsa (pres.)
		mumuluts-ki (pret.)
		mumuluts-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (SD) mulu:ni "to fly, to blow (dust, flour, etc.)"
		CN cf. momolotza (Sim.) "sacar espuma, separar en partes"

(SD) mumuxu  	migaja  (mumuxuʔ) 
		crumb
		-mumuxu (poss.) 
		muhmumuxu (pl.) 
		cf. Mumuxua “to crumb”

(C) mumuxua 		(t.v.)  pozolear, pedacear, hacerle pedacitos, deshacer 
		to crumb, to break into pieces
		mumuxua (pres.) ni-k-mumuxua "I'm breaking it into pieces" 
		mumuxuh (pret.)
		mumuxuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mumuxu "crumb"
(SD) mumuxua

(C) mu:mu:yu-pe:wia 		(t.v., incorp., redup.) mosquear, espantar mosquitos
		to swat gnats, flies, to chase gnats/flies away
		mu:mu:yupe:wia (pres.)
		mu:mu:yupe:wih (pret.)
		mu:mu:yupe:wih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mu:yu:-t "gnat", pe:wia "to hunt, to fan"
(SD) mu:mu:yu-pe:wia  mosquear, espantar mosquitos; colear 
		to swat gnats, flies; to wag (the) tail
	
(SD) mundu(h) 	 mundo
		world
		Sp. mundo
	
(SD) munisipiyu(h)  		municipio
		municipality, city, town center
		Sp. municipio
	
(C) -mu:n-ti  		yerno, novio
		son-in-law, boyfriend, bridegroom
		-mu:n (poss.) nu-mu:n "my son-in-law"
		-mu:n-wan (poss. pl.) nu-mu:n-wan "my sons-in-law" cf. siwa:-mu:n-ti "daughter-in-		law, girlfriend"
		CN mo:ntli (Car.)
	(SD) mu:n-ti
		muhmu:nti (pl.) 

(SD) mu:rinchi  	molinillo  (mu:rinchiʔ)
		chocolate beater
		Sp. molino "mill", (?) -tsin 'diminutive' 
		cf. (C) murinilyuh
	
(C) murinilyuh  	molinillo
		chocolate beater
		Sp. molinillo
		cf. (SD) mu:rinchi

(SD) muruxu  		colocho, rizo, crespo (muruxuʔ) 
		curly
		Sp. morocho
	
(SD) mu:sta  		mañana
		tomorrow
		mu:stayuk  "until tomorrow" (hasta mañana)
		ixta mu:sta, axta mu:sta "until tomorrow" (hasta mañana) 
		CN mo:stla (Car.)
(SD) mu:sta
		mu:stayuk "until tomorrow" (hasta mañana)

(C) mu:stayuk  	hasta mañana
		until tomorrow (a greeting)
		cf. mu:sta "tomorrow", -uk "still, now, moreover, for now" 
		CN moztlayoc (Sim.) "el día siguiente"
(SD) mu:stayuk

(C) mu:su-t  		mosote, mozote (especie de cardo (?))
		burr, cuckle burr
		muhmu:sut (pl.) 
(SD) mu:su-t

(SD) mu:ta (t.v.)  	aventar, tirar, arrojar
		to throw at, to heave
		mu:ta (pres.)
		mu:ta-k (pret.)
		mu:ta-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tamu:ta "to throw"
		CN motla (Sim.) "arrojar una piedra"; PN *mo:tla 
		cf. (C) tamu:ta (t.v.) "to throw"

(C) mu:tah    	mutate, muta, motate (una comida de pina frita con huevos y tomates)
		a food of pineapple fried with eggs and tomatoes
(SD) mu:tah

(C) mu:tia (t.v., r.v.)  		asustar(se), espantar(se), arrear
		to be frightened,  scared; to frighten, to scare, to drive (animals)
		mu:tia (pres.)
		mu:tih (pret.) ni-mu-mu:tih "I was scared", ni-k-mu:tih "I frightened him"
		mu:tih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. te:mu:tia, te:muhmu:tia "to frighten someone"
(SD) mu:tia

(C) mutuh-tsin   	palo de zorrillo (arbol)
		tree sp., a medium-sized tree, round in the middle and pointed on top used to decorate  		the altars of the Viacruces (altars placed in front of the houses along the way of 			processions) (literally "squirrel tree"; in Sp. "skunk tree")
		cf. (Teotepeque)  mutuh-tsin,  (C)  mutusin,  (SD)  mututsin "squirrel"

(Teotepeque) mutuh-tsin   	ardilla
		squirrel
		CN mo:toʔtli (Car.) 
		cf. (C) mutusín, (SD) mututsin

(C) mutusín  	ardilla
		squirrel
		muhmutusin (pl.) CN mo:toʔtli (Car.) 
		cf. (SD) mutu-tsin, (Teotepeque) mutuh-tsin

(SD) mutu-tsin  	ardilla (?)
		squirrel (?)
		CN mo:to?tli (Car.)
		cf. (C) mutusin, (Teotepeque) mutuh-tsin

(C) mu:yu:-t  		mosquito
		gnat, small fly
		mu:yu:-tsín "small gnat" (mosquitillo), mu:yu:-tsi-tsín (pl.) 
		cf. xa:l-mu:yu:-t "gnat sp." (jején)
		CN mo:yo:tl (Car.); PN *mo:yo:-
(SD) mu:yu-t  mosquito, mosca
	gnat, fly
	muhmu:yut (pl.) 

(C) mu:yutsa  		nispero (arbol, fruta)  (mu:yutsaʔ)
		tree sp., its fruit, a large tree and its persimmon-like zapote fruit which is round and 		sweet
		-mu:yutsa (poss.)  nu-mu:yutsa "my níspero fruit"
		muhmu:yutsa (pl.) 
		cf. (?) mu:yu:-t "gnat", tsapu-t "zapote"
		cf. (SD) mu:yutsapu-t
		
(SD) mu:yutsapu-t 	nispero
		tree sp., its fruit, a large tree and its  persimmon-like zapote fruit which is round and 		sweet
		cf. mu:yu:-t "gnat", tsapu-t "zapote" 
		cf. (C) mu:yutsa

N

(SD) nabahiar, mu-chiwa  	rasurarse, afeitarse to shave
		Sp. navajear(se)
	
(C) naha  	yo
		I
		na(h)  'abbreviated form'
		CN neʔ (wa(tl)) (Car.); PN *nəh
(SD) naha
	
(C) naka (i.v.)  	quedarse
		to stay, to remain
		naka (pres.)
		naka-k (pret.) naka-k "he/she stayed" (nagak)
		nak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)alnaka "to stay", naktia "to leave", ku:naka "to get stuck"
	
(SD) naka (i.v.)  	quedarse, atrasarse
		to stay, to remain, to get behind, to stay behind
		ni-naka-k "I got behind, I stayed" (ninagak)
	
(C) -nakas  oreja, oido
		ear
		nu-nakas "my ear"  (nunagas)
		-nahnakas (pl.) 
		i-nakas ku:mi-t "pot handle" (oreja (asa) de olla)
		CN nakastli (C); PN *nakas
(SD) -nakas
	
(SD) -nakastan  	al lado de
		beside, along side of
		nu-nakastan "beside me" 
		mu-nakastan "beside you"
		i-nakastan "beside him/her/it" 
		ka i-nakastan "it's beside him/her" (ga inagastaŋ) 
		cf. -nakas "ear", -tan 'locative'

(C) naka-t  	carne
		meat, flesh
		-naka-yu, -naka-w (poss.) 
			nu-naka-yu "my flesh (of my body)" (-yu 'intimate poss.'); nu-naka-w "my meat 			(for eating)" (-w 'poss.')
		i-naka-yu wa:kax "beef"
		CN nakatl (Car.); PN *naka-
(SD) naka-t

(C) nakatamal  nacatamal, tamal de carne
	tamale with meat
	nahnakatamal (pl.) 
	cf. naka-t "meat", tamal "tortilla"
	CN nacatamalli (Sim.) "tamal de carne"
(SD) nacatamal

(C) naktia (t.v.)  	dejar
		to leave, to abandon, to leave behind
		naktia (pres.)
		naktih (pret.) ni-k-naktih "I left it"
		naktih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. naka "to stay", -tia 'caus.'
		CN cf. nactia (Sim.) "habitar, detener(se), retener (a alguien)"

(C) namaka (t.v.)  	vender
		to sell
		namaka (pres.) ni-k-namaka "I sell it" (niknamagaʔ)
		namaka-k (pret.)
		namaka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-namaka "to sell (something)"
		CN namaka (Car.)
(SD) namaka

(C) na:miki (t.v.)  	encontrar, encontrarse con
		to meet someone, to encounter
		na:miki (pres.)
		na:mik (pret.) ni-k-na:mik "I encountered him"
		na:mik-tuk (perf.)
		CN na:miki (Car.)
(SD) na:miki

(C) na:miktia (t.v., r.v.)  casarse, casar
	to marry, to get married
	na:miktia (pres.)
	na:miktih (pret.) mu-na:miktih "(he) got married", ki-na:miktih "he married her"
	na:miktih-tuk (perf.)
	cf. na:miki "to meet", -tia 'caus.'
	CN na:miktia (UC); PN *na:mɨk-tia 
(SD) na:miktia

(C) na:n  	madre
		mother
		-na:n (poss.) nu-na:n "my mother" 
		nahna:nmet (pl.) 
		nuhnu-na:n "my mothers"
		CN na:ntli (Car.); PN *na:n-
(SD) na:n
		nahná:n (pl.) 

(SD) na:n 	 nance (nanche)  (na: ŋ)		fruit sp., nance 
		cf. (C) na:ntsin

(C) na:naka-t  		hongo 
		mushroom 
		nahna:naka-t (pl.) 
		CN nanacatl (Sim.) 
		cf. (SD) ku:nanaka-t "tenquique (tree mushroom)"

(C) na:na:watsin   	Nanahuatzin,  "el chimpe",  el sabio  (personaje mitológico)
		Nanahuatzin, "the Youngest Son", the wise one (mythological personage)
		(note: see text N, chapter 7)
		cf. -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN  cf.  Nanauatzin (Sim.) "personaje misterioso  relacionado con  la mitología 			mexicana; cf. (?) nanauatl (Sim.) "mal venéreo, bubas, lepra"

(SD) na:na:watsin  		brujo, ser mitológico 
		a witch, a mythological being
		
(Ataco) nanawela, nanawelita 	abuela 
		grandmother
		cf. Sp. nana + abuela, abuelita

(SD) nan-tsin  		señora
		lady, mrs.
		cf. na:n "mother", -tsin 'diminutive (reverential)' 
		CN cf. nan(tzin)tli (Sim.) "madre"

(C) na:ntsin  nance (nanche)
		fruit sp., nance fruit
		nahna:ntsin (pl.) 
		cf. (?) -tsin 'diminutive' 
		cf.(SD) na:n

(C) na:palua (t.v.)  	abrazar
		to embrace, to hug
		na:palua (pres.)
		na:paluh (pret.)
		na:paluh-tuk (perf.) ni-k-na:paluh-tuk "I have embraced her" 
		cf. ta-na:palua "to be embracing"
		CN napaloa (Sim.) "tomar, llevar en brazos, gobernar"
(SD) napalua  		abrazar, chinear (apapachar)
		to embrace, to hug, to cuddle

(C) na:pich  		cusuco, armadillo armadillo
		nahna:pich (pl.) 

(C) -na:wak  		cerca de, junto con 
		near, next to, close to 
		nu-na:wak "near me"
		mu-na:wak "near you"
		i-na:wak "near him/her/it" tu-na:wak "near us"
		cf. -k 'locative (in)'
		CN nauac (Sim.); PN *n(a:w)ak
(SD) na:wak
		i-na:wak ne kal "near the house" 
		ya:h-ki tu-na:wak "(she) came with us"

(C) na:wa-t  		pipil, nahuate (la lengua indígena)
		Pipil, Nahuate, the native language
		CN nauatl (Sim.) "lengua mexicana; que suena bien, que produce un buen sonido, 		sagaz, astuto, hábil
(SD) na:wa-t

(C) nawatia (t.v.)  	aconsejar
		to advise
		nawatia (pres.) ni-k-nawatia "I advise it/him"
		nawatih (pret.)
		nawatih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) na:wa-t "Pipil", -tia 'caus.'
		CN cf. nawatia (Car.) "mandar, despedir"
(SD) nawatia  aconsejar, avisar

(C) na:watsa  		matasano (árbol, clase de zapote)
		tree sp., a kind of zapote
		nahna:watsa (pl.) 
		cf. (SD) na:watsapu-t

(SD) na:watsapu-t  		matasano, zapote mico 
		tree sp., a kind of zapote fruit 
		cf. tsapu-t "zapote"
		(note: na:wa- may well be "witch", suggested by the Spanish translation "mico"  				which means "witch" and by related forms such as na:na:wa-tsin "The 					Nanahuatzin, witch", and CN forms such as naualli "witch, transformer, nagual, 			alter ego" and nanauatia "to transform (oneself into an animal)")
(C) na:wi  	cuatro
		four
		CN na:wi (Car.); PN *na:wɨ
(SD) na:wi

(SD) na:wi i:xku   		tarea (área trabajada en una siembra durante  un día)
		"job", the area worked in one day in a field
		cf. na:wi "four", i:xku "sign, land measure"

(C) na:wisalku  		Nahuizalco (nombre de pueblo) 
		Nahuizalco (town name)
		cf. (?) na:wi "four", -ku 'locative' 
(SD) na:wisalku

(C) ne  	el/la ('articulo definido)
		the ('definite article')
		CN cf. in (Sim.)
(SD) ne

(C) ne:  	ahí, allí, allá  (ne:ʔ)
		there
		ka ne: "there, over there"  (gane:ʔ)
		CN ne (Sim.)
		cf. (SD) ne:pa "there"

(C) nehmach  		despacio, quieto
		slow, quiet
		nehmach nemi "it's quiet"
		ni-nehmach nemi "I'm quiet,  I'm out of work" (estoy  quieto, sin oficio)
(SD) nehmach
		ni-nehmach nemi "I'm quiet"

(C) nehne:lwia (t.v., redup.)  		apurrar, ir a apurar
		to go hurry, to hurry someone
		nehne:lwia (pres.) ni-k-nehne:lwia "I'm going to hurry him" 
		nehne:lwih (pret.)
		nehne:lwih-tuk (perf.)
		xi-k-nehne:lwi "hurry him!"
		cf. (mu-)ne:lwia "to hurry" 

(C) nehnemi (i.v., redup.)  		caminar, andar
		to walk
		nehnemi (pres.)
		nehnen-ki (pret.) ni-nehnen-ki "I walked"  (ninehneŋgiʔ) 
		nehnen-tuk (perf.)
		cf. nemi "to be"
		CN nenemi (Sim.) "caminar mucho, ir, pasearse"
(SD) nehnemi

(C) nek-a:yu-t  	miel (de colmena)  (nega:yut)
		honey
		-neka:yut (poss.) nu-neka:yut "my honey"
		cf. nek-ti "sweet(s)", a:-yu "liquid, juice"
		CN cf. necuatl (Sim.) "miel, jugo, jarabe de maguey"

(C) neki (t.v.)  		querer, desear
		to want, to wish
		neki (pres.) ni-k-neki "I want it" 
		nek (pret.)
		nek-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mu-neki "to need"
		CN neki (Car.); PN *nəki
(SD) neki
		neki-k (pret.)

(C) mu-neki (r.v.)  	necesitar
		to need
		ni-mu-neki nu-mé:diyuh "I need money" 
		cf. mu- 'reflexive', neki "to want" 
		CN mo-nequi (Sim.)
(SD) mu-neki

(C) nekpach  		canuto, gajo, tajada
		section of cane, section of fruit
		-nekpach (poss.) 
		cf. (?) nek-ti "sweet(s)"
(SD) nekpach

(C) nek-ti (n.)  	dulce (de panela) 
		candy, sweet(s)
		-nek (poss.)  nu-nek "my candy"
		CN nekwtli (Car.) "honey"
(SD) nek-ti
		nehnekti (pl.) 

(C) nektsin  	oso colmenero (oso hormiguero) 
		anteater
		cf. nek-ti "sweet(s)", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) mu-nekwilua (r.v.)  	estar desplomado, agacharse, ladearse
		to be leaning, to lean
		mu-nekwilua (pres.)
		mu-nekwiluh (pret.)
		mu-nekwiluh-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. necuiloa (Sim.) "torcer, retorcer, curvar una cosa"

(SD) nekwilua (t.v.,  r.v.)  	ladear(se), pandear(se), hacer(se) al lado
		to lean to one side, to bend, to curve
		nekwiluh-tuk (perf.)
		ni-mu-nekwilua "I'm leaning"
		ni-k-nekwilua "I'm leaning it"

(C) ne:lua (t.v.)	 menear  
		to stir
		ne:lua (pres.) ki-ne:lua "(she) is stirring it" 
		ne:luh (pret.)
		ne:luh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-ne:lua "to be stirring"
		CN neloa (Car.) "remar, batir" 
(SD) ne:lua

(C) nelwa-t  		raíz
		root
		-nelwa-yu (poss.)  i-nelwa-yu "its root" 
		i-nehnelwa-yu (pl.) "its roots"
		CN nelhuayotl (Sim.) "base, raíz, fundamento"
(SD) nelwa-t  		raíz (como bejuco, como de camote, yuca, etc.) 
		root, tuber

(C) ne:lwia (t.v., r.v.)  	apurar(se)
		to hurry
		ne:lwia (pres.)
		ne:lwih (pret.) ni-mu-ne:lwih "I'm hurrying", ni-k-ne:lwih "I'm hurrying him up"
		ne:lwih-tuk (perf.)
		xi-mu-ne:lwi "hurry!"
		cf. nehne:lwia "to go hurry"
		CN cf. nelhuia (Sim.) "agitar, sacudir, revolver"

(C) neman-a  		pronto, luego (nemaŋaʔ)
		soon, right away
		ni-yu ni-k-chiwa neman-a "I'm going to do it right away" 
		cf. (?) -a 'already'
		CN niman (Car.) "en seguida"
(SD) neman-a (nemaŋ(g)aʔ)

(C) nemi (i.v., auxiliary)  		estar, ser, haber (hay)
		to be, to exist (there is/are)
		nemi (pres.)
		nen-ki (pret.) ni-nen-ki "I was" (nineŋgiʔ)
		nen-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. nemi (Car.) "vivir"
(SD) nemi

(C) ne:né:  	aquel, aquella, aquello (ne:né:ʔ)
		that, that one over there
		CN cf. inin (Sim.)

(C) -nenepil  		lengua
		tongue
		i-nenepil "his/her/its tongue" 
		nu-nenepil "my tongue"
		CN nenepilli (Sim.)

(C) nenwila:nia (t.v.) 		colgar, guindar
		to hang
		nenwila:nia (pres.) ni-k-nenwila:nia "I hang it" (nikneŋwila:niyaʔ)  
		nenwila:nih (pret.)
		nenwila:nih-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf.(?) uilana (Sim.) "arrastrar"

(SD) ne:pa  		allá, ahí, allí  (ne:paʔ)
		there
		ne:pa nemi ka-tani  "It's down there"
		CN ne:pa (Car.)
		cf. (C) ne:

(C) nepanua (t.v.) 		 poner otro encima, endosar (hacer dos)
		to put one on top of the other, to double
		nepanua (pres.) ni-k-nepanua "I'm putting one on top of  the other"
		nepanuh (pret.)
		nepanuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ne- (frozen 'reciprical' (?)), -ipan "behind", -ua 'passive/caus.'
		CN nepano:a (Car.) "juntar, echar una cosa sobre otra"
(SD) nepanua

(C) ne:si (t.v.)  	verse, aparecerse
		to appear, to look like, to ;show up
		ne:si (pres.)
		ne:si-k (pret.) ne:si-k "it was seen"
		ne:s-tuk (perf.)
		CN ne:si (Car.) "aparecer"

(SD) ne:si  aparecerse, nacer
		ni-ne:si-k "I was born"

(C) netech  		tupido
		thick, dense (of plants, forests)
		cf. ne- (frozen 'reciprocal'), -tech "against, next to"
		CN cf. ne-tech (Car.) "entre sí"

(C) nex-a:yu-t  	nejayote, nijayote, cernada (agua de nixtamal) 
		nixtamal water,  the water in which corn is washed which has the dirty remains
		cf. nex-ti "ash", a:-t "water", a:-yu "liquid"
		CN cf. nexatl (Sim.) "lejia, literalmente agua de ceniza"
(SD) nex-a:yu-t

(C) nex-kalaki (i.v., incorp.) 		estar calado (recocido el maíz (?)) 
		to be soaked through (meaning for the corn soaked in ash to be ready)
		nexkalaki (pres.) nexkalaki "it's soaking through" (nexgalagiʔ) 
		nexkalak (pret.)
		nexkalak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. nex-ti "ash", kalaki "to enter"

(C) nex-ketsa (t.v., incorp.)  		cocer nixtamal, cocer maiz)
		to cook nixtamal (prepared corn)
		nexketsa (pres.)
		nexkets-ki  (pret.) ni-nexkets-ki-ya "I already cooked the nixtamal"
		nexkets-tuk (perf.)
		cf. nex-ti "ash", ketsa "to raise"
(SD) nex-ketsa
		xi-nexketsa "cook (the corn)!"

(C) nex-nah (adj.) 		 nexno (sucio de ceniza, de polvo; enpolvado) 
		dusty
		cf. nex-ti "ash"
		CN cf. nextic (Sim.) "gris, de color ceniciento"

(C) nex-pinu:l   	pinol dulce, tapinol (harina de maiz tostada con azucar y especias)
		sweet pinole (corn flour toasted with sugar and spices)
		nex-ti "ash", pinu:l "pinole"
(SD) nex-pinu:l

(C) nextamal  		nestamal, nistamal, nixtamal (maíz lavado y preparado en ceniza o cal)
		nixtamal, leached corn (a stage in the preparation of corn dough where corn kernels 		are soaked in water with lye or ash to soften the skins)
		-nextamal (poss.) 
		cf. nex-ti "ash", tamal "tortilla"
		CN nextamalli (Sim.) (?) "especie de pan"
(SD) nextamal
(C) nex-ti  		ceniza
		ash, ashes
		i-nex-yu ti(:)-t  "ashes of the fire" (-yu 'intimate poss.') 
		CN nextli (Sim.); PN *nəx-
(SD) nex-ti

(C) ne:xtia (t.v., r.v.)  		asomarse, darse a ver, aparecer; decubrir, causar a verse
		to show oneself, to be seen, to appear, to stick one's head out, to lean out; to discover, 		to cause to be seen
		ne:xtia (pres.) mu-ne:xtia "(she) sticks her head out", ki-ne:xtia "(she) discovers it"
		ne:xtih (pret.)
		ne:xtih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ne:si "to appear", -tia 'caus.'
		CN  ne:xtia (Car.);  nextia (Sim.) "mostrarse, hacerse ver, descubrirse"
(SD) ne:xtia

(SD) neyuk  		otro
		other
		cf. ne "the", -uk ('still, yet, more') 
		cf. se:yuk "other"

(SD) -ni:du(h)  	nido
		nest
		i-ni:du(h) "its nest"
		Sp. nido

(C) ni:kan  		aquí  (ni:gaŋ)
		ni:kan nemi "here it is"
		ni:kan-san "right here" (aquí no más) 
(SD) nikan

(SD) nin  		aquí  (niŋ)
		here

(C) niyawa     		adiós (saludo dicho por la persona que sale o que saluda primero)
		goodbye (greeting said by the person who leaves or who says the greeting first)
		cf.  xa:wa  "goodbye" (said by the person who remains or who answers the greeting)
		cf. ni-yaw-a "I'm going now"
(SD) niyawa tel 	adiós (dicho por la persona que sale o saluda primero)
		goodbye (said by the person who leaves or greets first)
		cf. xa:wa tel "goodbye" (said by the person who stays or answers the greeting)

(SD) no:y   		"niño" (término para hablarle a un muchacho pequeño) (noyʔ)
		"boy", term of address for a small boy

(SD) no:yah  		abuela
		grandmother
		-no:yah (poss.) nu-no:yah "my grandmother"

(SD) nudo(h)  		nudo
		knot
		Sp. nudo

(C) nu:hme  		dondequiera (por todo lugar) 
		anywhere, wherever
(SD) nu(:)hme

(SD) nu:san 		 también
		also, too
		CN cf. no:, nosan (Car.)

(C) nu:tsa 		 hablar
		to speak
		nu:tsa (pres.)
		nu:ts-ki (pret.)
		nu:ts-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)alnu:tsa "to call" 
		CN no:tsa (Car.) "llamar"
(SD) nu:tsa

O

(SD) o		o
		or
		Sp. o

(SD)  okupár,  -chiwa   	ocupar la mujer (tener relaciones sexuales con una mujer)
		to have sexual relations with a woman
		Sp. ocupar

(SD) ombrón  		grande, muy grande (ombroŋ)
		large, big, very big
		Sp. hombrón

(SD) ombronaso(h)  	gigante 
		giant, gigantic
		Sp. hombronazo

(SD) ondiyah  		hondilla, honda 
		sling, slingshot
		Sp. honda

(SD) ondiyasuh(h)  		hondillazo 
		a hit with a sling(shot) 
		Sp. hondillazo

(SD) onrado(h)   		honrado (oŋrado(h))
		honest, just, fair, honourable 
		Sp. honrado

(SD) ongo(h) 		 hongo
		mushroom
		cf. nanaka-t, ku:nanaka-t
		Sp. hongo

(C) o:rah, u:rah  	hora, a la hora que 
		hour, at the time that, when, then 
		Sp. hora
(SD) orah
		tay orah "when"

(SD) orár, -chiwa  	orar
		to pray
		Sp. orar

(SD) ori:yah  		orilla
		bank, edge
		ohori:yah (pl.) 
		Sp. orilla

(SD) orniyuh  		horno 
		oven
		cf. orno(h) "oven" 
		Sp. hornillo

(SD) orno(h)  		horno 
		oven
		cf. orniyuh "oven" 
		Sp. horno
	
(C) oroh  	oro
		gold
		Sp. oro
(SD) oroh

(SD) orraka(h)  	urraca 
		magpie
		Sp. urraca
	
(SD) oyoh, -chiwa   	ahoyar (hacer hoyo)
		to make or dig a hole
		Sp. hoyo

P
	
(C) pachiwia (t.v.)  	vigilar
		to watch, to watch over, to guard
		pachiwia (pres.)
		pachiwih (pret.)  ni-k-pachiwih "I watched/guarded it" 
		pachiwih-tuk (perf.)
		CN pachiwia (Car.) "espiar"; pachiuia (Sim.) "espiar, vigilar"
(SD) pachiwia
	
(SD) pachón  		peludo, pelusa (cubierto de)
		hairy, fuzzy
		Sp. pachón
		cf. (C) ku:pachon "hairy"
		
(C) pachua (t.v.)  	apachar (aplastar, oprimir)
		to hold down, to keep down, to press, to flatten
		pachua (pres.)
		pachuh (pret.) ki-pachuh-ke-t "they held it down"
		pachuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pachua "to be holding down (something)"
		cf. mu-pahpachua "to hold oneself down, to stay flat"
		CN pachoa (Car.) "gobernar, apretar"; pachoa (Sim.) "bajarse, gobernar, apretar, 				prensar, cubrir"
		cf. (SD) pachua
	
(SD) pagrastro(h)  	padrastro
		stepfather
		Sp. padrastro (pagrastro local pronunciation)
	
(C) pa:guh  		sueldo, pago
		salary, pay
		-pa:guh (poss.)  nu-pa:guh "my salary"
		Sp. pago
(SD) pa:guh

(C) pahchi:l-meka-t  		barbasco (veneno para pescado)
		fish poison
		cf. pah-ti "medicine", chi:l- 'red', "chili", mekat "vine"

(C) mu-pahpachua (r.v., redup.)  	apacharse, estar apachándose (aplastarse, oprimirse)
		to hold oneself down, to stay flat
		cf. mu- 'reflexive', pachua "to hold down, to flatten"

(C) pahpa:ki (i.v., redup.)  alegrarse, estar alegre  (pahpa:giʔ) 
		to be happy, to be joyful
		cf. pa:ki "to be happy"
		cf. pahpa:lilia "to be laughing at someone"

(C) pahpa:kilia (t.v., redup., applic.)  		estar riéndose de otro 
		to be laughing at someone
		cf. (SD) pa:kilia "to laugh at someone"

(C) mu-pahsulua (r.v.)  	alborotarse el pelo; engriparse
		for hair to be messed up; to catch cold
		mu-pahsulua (pres.)
		mu-pahsuluh (pret.)
		mu-pahsuluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:pahsul "hairy, uncombed; garbage"
		CN pacoloa (Sim.) erizarse el pelo, ponerse de punta"

(C) pah-ti  		remedio, medicina
		medicine, remedy
		-pah (poss.)  nu-pah "my medicine" 
		CN paʔtli (Car.)

(SD) pahti (i.v.) 	 curarse, sanarse
		to cure, to recover, to get well pahti (pres.)
		pahti-k (pret.)
		pahti-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pah-ti "medicine, remedy"
		cf. pahtia (t.v.) "to cure"
		CN paʔti (Car.)
		cf. (C) mu-pahtia "to recover"

(C) pahtia (t.v., r.v.) 		 curar(se)
		to cure, to get well, to recover
		pahtia (pres.)
		pahtih (pret.) ni-k-pahtih "I cured him", ni-mu-pahtih "I got better, I recovered"
		pahtih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pah-ti "medicine", -tia 'caus.'
		cf. tapahtiya "doctor", tapahtiyani "curer"
		CN pa?tia (Car.)
		cf. (SD) pahti (i.v.) "to recover"

(C) pak  	encima de, sobre
		on, on top of
		pak kal "on top of the house"
		pak me:sah "on the table"

(C) pa:ka (t.v., r.v.) 		 lavar(se)
		to wash
	pa:ka  (pres.) ni-k-pa:ka "I'm washing it", ni-mu-pa:ka "I'm washing myself"
	pa:ka-k (pret.)
	pa:k-tuk (perf.)
	cf. ta-pa:ka "to wash (something)", tapakti "the wash"
	cf. mu-i:xpa:ka "to wash one's face", (SD) mu-a:paka "to wash oneself",  mu-kxipa:ka "to 		wash one's feet", mu-ihtipa:ka "to wash one's abdomen", mu-tsimpa:ka "to wash one's 		buttocks", mu-te:mpa:ka "to wash one's mouth"
	CN pa:ka (Car.); PN *pa:ka

(C) pa:ki (i.v.)  	estar alegre, alegrarse
		to be happy
		pa:ki (pres.) ni-pa:ki "I'm happy" (nipa:giʔ)
		pa:ki-k (pret.)
		pa:ki-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pahpa:ki "to be happy"; paktia "to make laugh"
		cf. pa:kilia "to laugh at someone"; pahpa:kilia "to be laughing at someone"
		CN pa:ki (Car.) "alegrarse" 
(SD) pa:ki  reirse
		to laugh

(SD) pa:kilia (t.v., applic.)  		reirse de otro
		to laugh at someone
		pa:kilia (pres.)
		pa:kilih (pret.)
		pa:kilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pa:ki "to laugh", -(i)lia 'applic.'
		cf. (C) pahpa:kilia "to be laughing at someone"

(C) pa:ktia (t.v.)  		hacer reir
		to make someone laugh
		pa:ktia (pres.) ni-k-pa:ktia "I make him laugh" (nikpaktiyaʔ) 
		pa:ktih (pret.)
		pa:ktih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pa:ki "to be happy", -tia 'caus.'
		CN pa:ktia (Car.)

(C) pal (conj., preposition)  		para, para que; of (poss.)
		for, in order to, so that; of (poss.)
		cf. -pal "of" (poss.) 
(SD) pal

(C) -pal  	"de" (posesion, sustantivo relacional)
		of (poss., relational noun) 
		nu-pal "mine"
		mu-pal "yours"
		i-pal "his/hers/its"
		tu-pal "ours"
		anmu-pal "yours" (pl.) 
		im-pal "theirs"
		cf. pal "for, in order to"; cf. te:-pal "another's, foreign" 
		CN -pal (Sim.) "por, con, por medio de"
(SD) -pal

(C) pala (adj.)  	viejo (de cosas)
		old (of things)
		cf. pala:ni "to rot"
(SD) pala
		pahpala (pl.) 

(SD) palabra(h), palawra(h)  		palabra
		word
		Sp. palabra

(SD) palah  paleta, pala (cuchara de madera) 
		ladle, shovel, big wooden spoon
		Sp. pala
		cf. paletah

(SD) palangana(h)  	palangana 
		washbowl, water dish 
		Sp. palangana

(C) pala:ni (i.v.)  	pudrir, podrir to rot, to spoil
		pala:ni (pres.)
		pala:ni-k (pret.)
		pala:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pala "old"; cf. ku:pala "rotten wood" 
		CN pala:ni (Car.)
(SD) pala:ni
		cf. kuhpala "rotten firewood"

(SD) palasiu(h), palasio(h)  		palacio
		palace
		Sp. palacio

(SD) palawra(h), palabra(h)  		palabra
		word
		Sp. palabra

(C) pa:leh  		padre, cura
		priest, father (religious title)
		puhpa:leh (pl.) 
		Sp. padre
(SD) pa:leh

(C) palestrah  		puesto, oficio, sitio 
		post, site
		Sp. palestra

(C) paletah  paleta (cuchara de madera) ladle, large wooden spoon
	Sp. paleta
	cf. (SD) palah
(SD) paletah

(C) -pale:tah-yu 	 cadera
	hip
	i-pahpale:tah-yu (pl.) "his/her hips"
	Sp. paleta

(C) pale:wia (t.v.)  	ayudar
	to help
	pale:wia (pres.) ni-k-pale:wia "I'm helping him" (nikpale:wiyaʔ)
	pale:wih (pret.)
	pale:wih-tuk (perf.)
	CN pale:wia (Car.)
(SD) pale:wia
	pale:w-ki (pret.)
	pale:w-tuk (perf.)
	xi-nech-pale:wi "help me!"

(C) palmah  		palma, palmera
	palm, palm tree
	Sp. palma
(SD) palmah

(SD) palmár, -chiwa  		aplaudir 
	to clap, to applaud
	Sp. palmar

(SD) paloma(h)  		paloma 
	dove, pigeon
	Sp. paloma

(SD) palosanto  		palo jiote (árbol)
		tree sp., a cross is made from two of its branches for Cross Day (May 3rd)
		cf. Sp. palo santo
		cf. (C) (i)xi:nyu-kwawi-t
(C) pa:mpa diyúx  		gracias, Dios se lo pague 
		thanks
		cf. diyux from Sp. dios
		CN cf. (i)pampa (Sim.) "por causa de" 
		cf. (SD) dios-se-lo-page

(C) pan  	pan  (paŋ)		bread
		Sp. pan

(SD) pankali(y)ente(h)   	pan-caliente (un bejuco que da quemadas si lo toca)
		Sp. pan caliente "hot bread"

(SD) pantano(h)   		pantano
		swamp, marsh, bog
		Sp. pantano

(SD)  pa:n-ti   		pantis, pante, trinchera (medida de leña picada amontonada)
		a measure of firewood, a wall of firewood
		cf. (C) ku:pa:n-ti
		CN pantli (Sim.) "bandera, línea, muro, hilera; cf. quauhpantli (Sim.) "puente de 				madera"

(SD) panti(y)ón 		camposanto, cementerio 
		graveyard, cemetery
		Sp. panteón

(C) panu (i.v.)  		pasar
		to pass, to cross, to go by
		panu (pres.)  ni-panu "I cross"
		panu-k (pret.)
		panu-tuk (perf.)
		xi-panu "go by!" 
		cf. panultia "to pass something, to transfer" 
		CN pano (Car.) "pasar, cruzar"; PN *pano-
(SD) panu

(C) panultia (t.v.)  		pasar, traspasar (pasar de comer demasiado) 
		to pass something, to transfer; to overeat
		panultia (pres.)
		panultih (pret.)
		panultih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. panu "to pass", -(l)tia 'caus.'
(SD) panultia

(SD) pa:pah 		 papa
		potato
		Sp. papa

(C) pa:pa:lu:-t  mariposa, apagacandela (mariposa nocturna) 
		butterfly, moth
		pahpa:pa:lu:t (pl.) 
		pa:pa:lu:-tsin "little butterfly" (mariposita)
		CN papalotl (Sim.)

(SD) pa:pa:lu-t
		nu-pa:pa:lut "my butterfly"

(C) papataka (i.v., redup.)  revolar, volar, revolotear, aletear
		to fly, to fly around, to flap, to flutter
		papataka (pres.)
		papataka-k (pret.)
		papataka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pata:ni "to fly"
		CN papatlaca (Sim.) "temblar, tiritar de frio, revolotear, revolar, volar con rapidez, 			hablando de pajaro"
(SD) papataka

(SD) papaya  		papaya  (papayaʔ)
		papaya
		Sp. papaya

(SD) papeliyu(h)  	papelillo (arbol)
		tree sp., "small paper tree"
		Sp. papelillo

(SD) papera(h) 	 papera
		mumps
		Sp. papera

(SD) paralítiko 	 paralitico
		cripple, parlytic
		Sp. paralítico

(SD) parke(h)  parque
		park
		Sp. parque

(SD) parte(h), -maka  		tomar parte, participar 
		to take part, to participate
		Sp. parte, maka "to give"

(C) paskwah tuhtul  		flor de pascua easter lily
		Sp. pascua, tuhtul- 'yellow'

(SD) pastiyah  pastilla
		pill
		Sp. pastilla

(SD) pastór 	 pastor
		pastor
		Sp. pastor

(SD) pa:suh  		paso 
		step
		Sp. paso

(C) pata (t.v.)  		cambiar (p. ej. dinero, ropa)
		to change (e.g. money, clothes), to exchange, to trade 
		pata (pres.)
		pata-k (pret.) ni-k-pata-k "I changed it"
		pata-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-patilia "to exchange, to interchange"; cf. -pati-w "price"; cf. -patka "exchange, 			replacement"
		CN  patla  (Car.) "trocar"; patla (Sim.) "cambiar, intercambiar, trocar, fundir"

(C) pa:ta (t.v.)  	derretir, "redetir", deshacer en agua
		to melt, to dissolve
		pa:ta (pres.) ni-k-pa:ta "I'm melting it"
		pa:ta-k (pret.)
		pa:ta-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pa:ti (i.v.) "to melt"
		CN cf. pa:tla (Car.) "desleir"
(SD) pa:ta

(C) patach  		concha de mar, conchita
		sea shell, small shell
		-patach (poss.) nu-patach "my shell"
		CN cf.  (?) patlachtic (Sim.) "extendido",  patlachuia (Sim.) "masturbar una mujer a 			otra"

(SD) pa(:)tach  	pataxte (cacao inferior)
		cacao sp., wild cacao (?)
		-pa(:)tach (poss.)  nu-patach "my pataxte" pahpa(:)tach (pl.) 
		cf. (C) ku:patach

(C) mu-patachua (r.v.)   	aguasaparse, agacharse (para evitar algo, p. ej. para ir debajo de 					una rama)
		to duck, to stoop
		mu-patachua (pres.)  ni-mu-patachua "I'm ducking"
		mu-patachuh (pret.)
		mu-patachuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) pa(:)tach "shell"

(C) pata:ni (i.v.)  	volar
		to fly
		pata:ni (pres.)
		pata:ni-k (pret.)
		pata:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. papataka "to fly, to flap, to flutter"
		CN patla:ni (Car.); PN *patla:nV
(SD) pata:ni

(C) pata:wa (t.v.)  	extender, tender, destender, anchar
		to extend, to widen
		pata:wa (pres.) ni-k-pata:wa "I'm extending it"
		pata:h (pret.)
		pata:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pata:wak "wide", pata:waya "to widen, get wider"
		CN patlaua (Sim.) "ampliar, alargar"
(SD) pata:wa
		pata:w-ki (pret.)
		pata:w-tuk (perf.)

(C) pata:wa-k  	ancho
		wide
		cf. pata:wa "to extend, to widen" 
		CN patlauac (Sim.); PN *patla:wa-k
(SD)  pata:wa-k
		cf.  pata:wa "to extend,  to widen"; cf. pata:waya "to become wider"

(C) pa:ti (i.v.)  	derretirse, deshacerse, disolverse
		to melt, to dissolve
		pa:ti (pres.)
		pa:ti-k (pret.) pa:ti-k-a "it already melted" (pa:tigaʔ)
		pa:ti-tuk (perf.)
		cf.  pa:ta (t.v.) "to melt,  to dissolve"; cf. a:-t "water" (from Proto-Uto-Aztecan *pa:-)
(SD) pa:ti

(C) -pati-w  		precio
		price
		i-pati-w "its price"  (-w 'poss.') 
		i-pahpati-w (pl.)  "its prices" 
		cf. pata "to change"
		CN cf. patio (Sim.) "que tiene precio, valor, caro" 
(SD) -pati-w

(SD) pátiyuh 		 patio
		patio
		Sp. patio

(C) -patka  		repuesto (refaccion), cambio 
		replacement, exchange, part i-patka "its replacement"
		nu-patka "my exchange/(spare)part"
		cf. pata "to change", -ka 'perf. nominalization'
		CN cf. patcayotia (Sim.) "sustituir a alguien, pagar lo que se compra"
(SD) -patka  cambio (intercambio)
		trade, exchange

(C) patka:wia (t.v.)  		resembrar
		to replant
		patka:wia (pres.)
		patka:wih (pret.) ni-k-patka:wih "I replanted it" patka:wih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-patka:wia "to be replanting, to replant"
		cf. patka "exchange"
		CN cf. patcayotia (Sim.) "sustituir"

(C) patuh, patu  	pato
		duck
		pahpatuh (pl.) 
		Sp. pato
		cf. (SD) patux

(SD) patux  			pato 
		duck
		-patux (poss.)  nu-patux "my duck"
		pahpatux (pl.) Sp. patos
		cf. (C) patu(h)

(C) patska (t.v.)  		ordenar, torcer (ropa mojada)
		to milk, to twist (wet clothes)
		patska (pres.)
		patska-k (pret.)  ni-k-patska-k "I milked her"
		patska-tuk (perf.)
		CN pa:tska (Car.) "exprimir, torcer"
(SD) patska

(SD) -pa:wil   		"nido" (el bolado o huevo que le ponen a la gallina para que ponga)
		nest egg, the egg or egg-shaped ball that is put in the chicken's nest so it will lay)
		i-pa:wil "its nest egg"
		CN cf. (?) pauilia (Sim.) "caber, atraer mediante reclamos a los peces, a los pajaros"
		cf. (C) tapa:wil

(C) pa:xah faja, cincho (de mujer, de caballo)
		sash, cinch
		-pa:xah (poss.) i-pa:xah "her sash"
		pahpa:xah (pl.) 
		Sp. faja
(SD) pa:xah

(C) pa:xa:lua (i.v.)  		pasear
		to take a walk, to have fun
		pa:xa:lua (pres.) ni-pa:xa:lua "I'm taking a walk" (nipa:xa:luwaʔ)
		pa:xa:luh (pret.)
		pa:xa:luh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. probably borrowed from Sp. pasear; cf. CN paxaloa (Sim.) 
(SD) pa:xa:lua (i.v.) pasear, visitar
		to take a walk, to have fun, to visit

(C) pa:xa:luwani 		 paseador (uno que solo en paseo anda)
		person who just has a good time
		cf. pa:xa:lua "to go for a walk", -ni 'agent'
(SD) pa:xa:luwani

(C) paya:na (t.v.)  		quebrar nixtamal, quebrar maiz (hacer masa, la primera pasada 					de moler)
		to grind corn (in the first grinding/the first time through), to break up/open the kernels 			of corn
		paya:na (pres.)
		paya:n (pret.) ni-ki-paya:n "I broke it (the corn)", ni-k-paya:n-ki-ya "I already broke it 			(the corn)"
		paya:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-paya:na "to be breaking/grinding corn for the first time/first pass"
		CN cf.  payana (Sim.) "aplastar los terrones,  romper, hacer pedazos, desmigajar"
(SD) paya:na

(C) payax-nah (adj.)  		xara, no cuexte, masa granuda (mal molida), arenoso
		grainy, poorly ground (of corn dough), gritty
		cf. paya:na "to break corn/grind in first pass", -nah 'adj.'
(SD) payax-nah  

(C) pa:yuh  		paño, rebozo
		scarf, shawl, kerchief
		-pa:yuh (poss.) i-pa:yuh "her kerchief" pa:yuh-tsin "handkerchief" (panuelo)
	Sp. paño
(C) -pechih   		pepexte (colchón que se pone debajo de la carga  para proteger la 					espalda de uno o del caballo, tambien para dormir)
		pad, cushion (put under a load to protect one's back or the back of a horse; also a 				mattress for sleeping)
		nu-pechih (poss.) "my cushion"
		CN pepechtli (Sim.) "colchon, tapiz"
		cf. (SD) pehpech

(SD) -pe:chuh 		pecho, pechuga
		chest, breast
		nu-pe:chuh "my chest"
		Sp. pecho

(SD) pedasiár, -chiwa  	descuartizar (cortar en pedazos) 
		to cut up in pieces
		Sp. pedacear

(C) pedradah  			pedrada (piedrazo)
		the throw/cast/hit of a stone/rock
		Sp. pedrada

(SD) pegeh 		 trabajo
		work
		ni-k-maka pegeh "I'll give him work/something to do"
		Sp. pegue

(SD) -pehpech  	pepexte (colchón para proteger la espalda de cargas) 
		pad, cushion to protect the back from loads
		nu-pehpech "my pad"
		i-pehpech ka:bayuh "saddle blanket, horse's protective cloth" 
		CN pepechtli (sim.) "colchón, tapiz"
		cf. (C) -pechih

(C) pehpena (t.v.) 		 pepenar, recoger, picotear
		to pick, to peck, to pick up
		pehpena (pres.)
		pehpen (pret.)  ni-k-pehpen "I picked it up"
		pehpen-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. peʔpena (Car.) "escoger"
(SD) pehpena
		pehpen-ki (pret.)

(C) pehpetu:ni (i.v., redup.)  		resbalarse
		to slide, to slip
		cf. petu:ni "to slide"
(SD) pehpetu:ni
(SD) pelech  		cicatriz 
		scar
		-pelech (poss.) nu-pelech "my scar"
		pehpelech (pl.) 
		cf. pelech-nah "skinned, wounded"; cf. (?) pala:ni "to rot"
		cf. (C) kipi
		CN cf. (?) palaxtli (Sim.) "llaga, herida, tumor"

(C) pelech-nah (adj.) 		herido, raspado (como una herida que no se ha compuesto 						todavia, como una fruta que le falta un pedazo, algo raspado)
		skinned, wounded (with an open sore or wound)         
		 cf. (?) pala:ni "to rot"
		CN cf. (?) palaxtli (Sim.) "llaga, herida, tumor"
		cf. (SD) pelech "scar"

(SD) pelón  		desnudo
		nude, naked
		Sp. pelón

(C) pe:lu  		chucho, perro  (pe:luʔ) 
		dog
		-pe:lu (poss.) 
		pehpe:lu:met (pl.) 
		Sp. perro
(SD) pe:lu

(C) pe:lua (t.v.)  	abrir
		to open
		pe:lua (pres.) ni-k-pe:lua "I'm opening it" pe:luh (pret.)
		pe:luh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mu-te:mpe:lua "to open one's mouth"
(SD) pelua
		cf. tapelua "to open (something)"

(C) peluta  		bola, pelota
		ball
		Sp. pelota

(C) -pe:na  		penado, pena
		trouble, bother(ed)
		nu-pe:na "my trouble"  (nupe:naʔ)
		Sp. pena

(SD) pensár, -chiwa  pensar
	to think
	Sp. pensar
(SD) pepe 		 huerfano  (pepeʔ) 
		orphan, motherless child
		Sp. pepe

(C) pe:peta (t.v.)  	revisar, registrar
		to check, to search
		pe:peta (pres.)
		pe:pet-ki (pret.)
		pe:pet-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. pepetal (Sim.) "peinar(se)"

(SD) pepetu(h) 	 pepeto, cojín, cujín (arbol)
		tree sp., similar to paterno tree, with ball-shaped fruit full of sweet "cotton" (fuzz)
		Sp. pepeto

(C) pepetska  platiado, plateado (pescado)
		fish sp., small silver, flat, edible fish
		cf. (?) pets-tik "smooth"
		CN cf. pepetzca (Sim.) "brillar, relucir"
(SD) pepetska  (pepetskaʔ)

(SD) pepinu(h)  	pepino 
		cucumber
		Sp. pepino

(SD) perdonár, -chiwa  		perdonar to pardon, to forgive 
		xi-nech-chiwa  perdonar "pardon me;  I'm sorry; I beg your pardon" (perdon, 				perdoneme, dispenseme)
	Sp. perdonar

(SD) perikuh-chin  	perico
		parrakeet
		Sp. perico, -tsin 'diminutive' 
		cf. (C) piriki:tuh

(C) pero(h), pe:ro(h)  		pero, sino
		but
		Sp. pero
(SD) pero, pe:ro(h)

(SD) persiknár, mu-chiwa  		persignarse 
		to cross oneself
		Sp. persignar(se)

(SD) perumet, perunket  		alberja(s), arbeja, chicharo (guisante) 
		pea(s)
		Sp. (?) pero ("a kind of long apple")

(SD) peseta(h)  		veinticinco centavos
		twenty-five cents
		Sp. peseta

(SD) peskár, -chiwa  		pescar
		to fish
		Sp. pescar

(SD) pespe(h)  		peste (que mata animales)
		pest, plague
		Sp. peste

(C) pe:suh  		colón, peso
		colón (monetary unit of El Salvador)
		-pe:suh (poss.) nu-pe:suh "my peso, my colón"
		pehpe:suh (pl.) 
		Sp. peso
(SD) pe:suh

(Teotepeque) pesu-t  		pizote (tejón) 
		coatimundi
		CN cf. pecotl (Mol.) "cierto animalejo"

(C) peta-t  		petate, estera
		(woven) mat
		-pet (poss.) nu-pet "my mat"
		pehpetat (pl.) 
		CN petlatl (Car.) (ultimately a loan from Mixe-Zoquean *pata "mat"); PN *pətla-

(SD) mu-petawa (r.v.)  	abrir la camisa
		to open one's shirt
		mu-petawa (pres.) 
		mu-petaw (pret.)
		mu-petaw-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) uh-petawa "to chop a trail, to clear a road"
		CN petlawa (Car.) "desvestir, brunir"

(SD) pete(:)wa (t.v.)  		extender (ampliar lodo, harina, hacer comal)  
		to extend, increase (e.g., to add flower to tortilla dough, to add mud in making a 				tortilla griddle)
		cf. pata:wa "to widen"

(C) petu:ni (i.v.)  		resbalarse
		to slide, to slip
		petu:ni (pres.)
		petu:ni-k (pret.)  ni-petu:ni-k "I slid"
		petu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pehpetu:ni "to slide, be sliding"
		CN cf. peto:ni (Car.) "desencajarse algun hueso del cuerpo"

(C) petsna:x-in  		tarconete, talconete (lagartija)
		lizard sp., small, green, smooth
		cf. pets-tik "smooth"

(C) mu-petstia (r.v.)  		desnudarse
		to undress
		mu-petstia (pres.) ni-mu-petstia "I'm undressing"
		mu-petstih (pret.)
		mu-petstih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pets-tik "smooth", petstilia (t.v.) "to undress someone", cf. petsti-tuk "nude"
		CN cf. petztia (Sim.) "ponerse muy brillante"

(C) pets-tik  		liso
		smooth
		pehpetstik (pl.) 
		cf. mu-petstia "to undress"
		CN cf. petztic (Sim.) "pulido, brillante"; cf. petztli "espejo"; pepetstik (UC) "liso"

(C) petstilia (t.v., applic.)  		desnudar (a otro)
		to undress (someone)
		petstilia (pres.) ni-k-petstilia "I'm undressing him"
		petstilih (pret.)
		petstilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. petstik "smooth", mu-petstia "to undress", -lia 'applic.' 
		cf. (SD) petstilia "to smooth"

(SD) petstilia (t.v.)  		alisar (como comales, ollas, con una piedrita)
		to smooth (e.g. to smooth or finish pots, griddles with a small stone) 
		petstilia (pres.)
		petstilih (pret.)
		petstilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) petstilia "to undress (someone)"

(C) petsti-tuk (adj.) 		 desnudo
		nude, naked
		cf. mu-petstia "to undress", -tuk 'perf.' 
(SD) petsti-tuk

(C) pe:wa (i.v.)  		comenzar, empezar to begin, to commence
		pe:wa (pres.) ni-pe:wa "I'm beginning" 
		pe:h-ki (pret.)
		pe:h-tuk (perf.)
		CN pe:wa (Car.); PN *pe:wa
(SD) pe:wa
		pe:h-ki, pe:w-ki (pret.)
		pe:h-tuk (perf.)

(C) pe:wia (t.v.)  	cazar
		to hunt (to chase, to catch (ʔ)
		pe:wia (pres.)
		pe:wih (pret.) ni-k-pe:wih-a "I already hunted/caught it"
		pe:wih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pe:wia "to be hunting"; tape:wil "the hunt, game"; 
		mu-pe:wia "to fan oneself"
		CN cf. peuia (Sim.) "espantar, hacer huir a pajaros"; pe:wia (UC) "oxear aves, 				ganado"

(C) mu-pe:wia (r.v.)  		soplarse, abanicarse (como con sombrero para refrescarse)  
		to fan oneself, e.g. with a hat to cool off
		mu-pe:wia (pres.)
		mu-pe:wih (pret.)
		mu-pe:wih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pe:wia "to hunt, to chase"
		CN cf. pe:wia (UC) "oxear aves, ganado"; peuia (Sim.) "espantar, hacer huir a 				pajaros"; cf. peuilia (Sim.) "cazar moscas"

(SD) peyna 		 temprano
		early
		cf. (C) peyna-san "early:, peynayuk "early, in the early morning"
		CN cf. payna (Mol.) "correr de prisa"

(C) peyna-san  	temprano
		early
		peynasan ni-wa:lah "I came early"
		cf. (SD) peyna "early, -san "only"

(SD) peynayuk 	"de la madrugada, todavia esta temprano" 
		in the early morning, it is still early
		cf. (C) peyna "early" -uk ('still, when, even')

(SD) picha:wak  (see pitsa:wak)  delgado, flaco
	thin, skinny 

(SD) pi:kal  lombriz
	worm
	cf. (Tacuba) pilley		 
(C) pi:ki (t.v.)  	empenar, arreglar, hacer tapesco, amarrar con pita (mecate), hacer 					matate (red), entrojar, armar
		to arrange,  to put together, to tie together with string, to make something with 				netting,  to assemble,  to build 
		pi:ki (pres.)
		pi:ki-k (pret.) ni-k-pi:ki-k "I tied/assembled it" (nikpi:gik)
		pi:k-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. (Car.) "fingir,  inventar"; piqui (Sim.) "formarse, unirse, inventar"
(SD) pi:ki

(SD) pi:la(h)  		canoa (para dar comida a animales)
		trough (to feed animals)
		Sp. pila

(SD) pilár, -chiwa  		pilar
		to thrash, to hull (grain)
		Sp. pilar

(C) pilich-nah  	arrugado (por el agua, de piel de gente, mango) 
		wrinkled (e.g. skin of people, mangos, as by water)
		cf. ma:-pilichnah "wrinkled (of hand)"
		CN cf. pilichtli (Sim.) "arrugada", pilichaui "arrugarse" 
(SD) pilich-nah  arrugado (por el agua), pálido
		wrinkled (by water), pale

(SD) pililili 		 tragadero de ave
		gullet of bird 
		i-pililili "its gullet"

(SD) pili:x-nah    		delgado o raquítico (de gente, plantas que no prosperan, que 						estan en malas condiciones)
		feeble, weak, malnurished (said of people or plants that do not thrive, that are in bad 			condition)
		cf. (?) pil- "child, boy", i:x "eye", 'face', -nah 'adj.'
		CN cf. (?) pilixtli (Sim.) "vista excellente, vista de niño"

(Tacuba) pilley  		lombriz 
		worm
		cf. (SD) pi:kal
	
(C) pil-tsín  		muchacho, joven, soltero 
		boy, young man, unmarried/bachelor
		-pila:wan (poss. pl.) nu-pila:wan "my boys, sons" 
		cf. pi:pil "boy, son", -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN pilli (Car.) "niño"; PN *pil-tsi:n
	
(SD) pil-tsin  		muchacho, sipote
		boy
		i-piltsin "his son" (cf. i-pi:pil "his son") 
		-pilawan (poss. pl.) nu-pilawan "my sons" 
		piltsin-chin "little boy" (muchachito, sipote) 
		i-piltsin tu:nal "albino", i-pilawan tu:nal "albinos"

(C) pilua (t.v.)   	terciar, ponerse algo, colgarse algo (como un collar por el cuello)
		to wear around the neck, to hang (e.g. a necklace)
		pilua (pres.)
		piluh(pret.)
		piluh-tuk (perf.)
		CN piloa (Car.) "colgar, ahorcar"
	
(SD) pilua  		guindar, colgar (guardado)
		to hang, to hang up (put away)
		cf. kupilua "to hang"
	
(C) pinu:l  		pinol, pinole
		pinole (powder or flour for eating or for drinks)
		pinu:l-tsin "fine pinole" (pinolillo (?))
		CN pinolli (Car.) "harina de maíz" 
(SD) pinu(:)l

(SD) piocha(h), piyocha(h)   		piocha
		pick, pickaxe
		Sp. piocha
	
(SD) pipa(h)  		pipa
		pipe
Sp. pipa

(C) -pi:pi 		 hermana mayor, tia 
		elder sister, aunt 
		nu-pi:pi "my elder sister, my aunt" (nupi:piʔ) 
		-pi:piwan (poss. pl.) nu-pi:piwan "my aunts" 
		CN pitli (Sim.) "hermana mayor"
(SD) pi:pi 	hermana mayor de mujer
		woman's elder sister 
(Ataco) -pi(:)pi 	 tía 
		aunt
	
(C) pi:pil  		muchacho, sipote
		boy
		pihpi:pilmet (pl.) 
		pi:pil-tsin "muchach(it)o", pi:pil-tsitsin (pl.) 
		cf. pil-tsin "boy, son"
		CN pilli (Sim.) 
(SD) pi:pil  	niño, muchacho, sipote, hijo 
		boy, little boy, son
		nu-pi:pil (poss.) "my son" 
		pi:pilmet, pihpi:pil (pl.) 
		pi:pil-tsin "little boy, small son", pi:pil-chichín (pl.) 

(C) pipi:na  		chupar (p. ej. dulce, marrañón)
		to suck (e.g. candy, fruit, etc.)
		pipi:na (pres.) ni-k-pipi:na "I suck it"
		pipi:n (pret.)
		pipi:n-tuk (perf.)
		CN pipina (Sim.) "comer, chupar cañas de azucar"
(SD) pipina
		pipin-ki (pret.)

(C) pipini-k 		 talludo, no cocido, duro, verde (dificil de partir, no se ablanda)
		with stocks/grainy, hard, green, not fully cooked
		CN cf. pipinqui (Sim.) "firme, fuerte"
(SD) pipini-k
		pihpipinik (pl.) 

(C) pi:piyah-tsin  	veraneño (caballito del diablo, libelula) 
		dragonfly
		CN cf. (?) pipiyolin (Sim.) "abeja silvestre"

(SD) pipiyán  		 pepián, pipián, pepitorio
		a kind of sauce
		Sp. pipián

(SD) pi:pi:yan  	siete-camisas (árbol)
		tree sp., "seven-shirts" tree 
		Sp. (?) pipián

(C) piriki:tuh  		perico
		parrakeet
		Sp. periquito
		cf. (SD) perikuh-chín

(C) pitahaya  		pitajaya (pitahaya, solo la fruta) 
		pitahaya cactus fruit
		Sp. pitajaya

(SD) pito(h)  		pito
		whistle
		Sp. pito
		cf. (C) pi:tuh

(C) pi:tuh  		pito, carrizo de pitar 
		whistle, reed for whistling 
		-pi:tuh (poss.) nu-pi:tuh "my reed whistle"
		Sp. pito
		cf. (SD) pito(h)

(SD) pitsa (t.v.)  	pitar, soplar pito, soplar
		to blow a whistle (to blow)
		(some say pi:tsa)
		pitsa (pres.)
		pits-ka (pret.)
		pits-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pitsa "to be whistling"
		CN pi:tsa (Car.) "soplar, tocar trompeta, flauta"; PN *pi:tsa 

(SD) pitsak-a:-t  	lloviznita
		mist, drizzle, sprinkle, light rain
		cf. pits(a:w)ak "thin", a:-t "water"

(C) pitsakua (t.v.)  		delgazar, adelgazar, sensillar, refinar (hacer más delgado)
		to make slimmer, to make thinner, to break (up) 
		pitsakua (pres.) ni-k-pitsakua "I'm making it thin(ner)" (nikpitsakuwaʔ)
		pitsakuh (pret.)
		pitsakuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pitsakua "to be making it slimmer"
		cf. pits(a:w)ak "thin, skinny", -ua 'passive/inchoative' 
(SD) pitsakua  pedacear, despanicar (quebrar en pedazos)
		to break into pieces, to crumb

(C) pitsa:wa-k  		delgado, flaco
		thin, skinny 
		CN pitzauac (Mol.); PN *pVtsa:wa-k
(C) pitsa:wa-k  (also picha:wa-k)
(SD) pitsini (t.v.)  		apretar
		to tighten, to press, to squeeze
		pitsini (pres.) (?)
		pitsin-ki (pret.)
		pitsin-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) pitsa:wa-k "thin, skinny"  
		CN cf. pitzini (Sim.) "rajarse, romperse, partirse"
		cf. (C) pitsinia

(C) pitsinia (t.v.)  		apretar
	to tighten, to press, to squeeze
	pitsinia (pres.) ni-k-pitsinia "I'm tightening it"
	pitsinih (pret.)
	pitsinih-tuk (perf.)
	CN cf. pitzinia (Sim.) "romper, partir, quebrar"
	cf. (SD) pitsini

(C)  pi:tsu-t   		peche (último niño de una madre embarazada o con un tiernito (bebé) 				que mama) 
		youngest child of a pregnant mother or of a mother with a nursing infant
		pihpi:tsut (pl.) 
		CN cf. (?) pitsotl (Sim.) "puerco"
(SD) pi:tsu-t

(C) pixi:xi   		 pixixe, pijije (clase de pato)  (pixi:xiʔ)
		duck sp.
(SD) pixi:xi      

(C) pixka (t.v.)  	tapiscar (piscar)
		to harvest, to pick
		pixka (pres.)
		pixka-k (pret.)  ni-k-pixka-k "I picked it"
		pixka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pixka "to pick, to be picking"; cf. (?) pixki (i.v.) 
			"for cooked corn to lose its skin"
	CN pixka (Car.) "cosechar, coger el maiz"; PN *pixka
(SD) pixka

(C) pixki (i.v.)  	pelarse el nixtamal, pelarse el maiz cocido
		for cooked corn to lose its skin
		pixki (pres.)
		pixki-k (pret.)
		pixki-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) pixka (t.v.) "to pick"; cf. (SD) pixkik (n.) 
			"well-cooked and skinned corn"

(SD) pixkik  		maíz bien cocido y peladito (nixtamal bien hecho,  sin cascara)
		well-cooked and skinned corn/well-made nixtamal
		cf. (C) pixki "for cooked corn kernels to lose their skin"

(C) pixtún  		pixton (tortilla grande y grueso)
		a kind of tortilla, large and thick
		Sp. piston

(C) pi:xua (t.v.)  	poner huevos
		to lay eggs
		pi:xua (pres.)
		pi:xuh (pret.) ki-pi:xuh "she laid it"
		pi:xuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pi:xua "to lay, be laying (eggs)"
		cf. ta-pi:xu-s-neki "she wants to lay an egg" (-s-neki 'desiderative')
		CN  cf.  (?)  pixoa (Sim.) "llenarse de plumas  (el pájaro), sembrar" 
(SD) pixua
		cf. ta-pixua

(C) piya  		tener
		to have, to possess
		piya (pres.)  ni-k-piya "I have it"
		pix-ki (pret.)
		pix-tuk (perf.)
		CN piya (Car.) "guardar"; PN *piya
(C) piya
		piya-k (pret.)
		piya-tuk (perf.)

(SD) pi(:)yal  		lombriz de la barriga
		intestinal worm
		cf. (?) piya "to have", -l 'passive nominalization'
		CN cf.(?) pialli (Sim.) pialli "depósito"
		cf. (Tacuba) pilley "worm", (SD) pi:kal "worm"

(SD) piyocha(h), piocha(h)    		piocha
		pick, pickaxe
		Sp. piocha

(SD) piyuch  		pichota (brote)
		bud
		CN cf. (?) piochtli (Sim.) "cabellos que se dejan en el occipucio a los niños cuando se 			los rapa; era costumbre entre los otomies, sobre todo"

(SD) pla:gah  		plaga
		plague, epidemic, pest
		Sp. plaga

(SD) planada(h)  		llano
		plain
		Sp. planada
		cf. plan-chin "plain"

(SD) plan-chín 		 llano 
		plain
		Sp. plan(o), -tsin/-chin 'diminutive'
		cf. planada(h) "plain"

(SD) -plantiyah-yu 		 plantilla
		sole of foot
		i-plantiyah-yu "his/her sole of foot"  (iplantiyahyuʔ)

(SD) plasah 			 plaza
		plaza, town square
		Sp. plaza

(SD) plaswelah  		plazuela
		small square, park
		Sp. plazuela

(SD) platah  			plata
		silver
		Sp. plata

(SD) platuh  			plato, traste plate, dish
		Sp. plato

(SD) -plumah-yu  		pluma (de ave) feather
		i-plumah-yu "its feather" 
		cf. Sp. pluma, -yu 'intimate poss.' 
		cf. uhmi-yu "feather"

(SD) pobreh-chin  		pobrecito
		poor, poor thing
		Sp. pobre, -tsin/-chin 'diminutive'

(SD) pobresah  		pobreza
		poverty
		Sp. pobreza

(SD) poder  			milagro miracle 
		-chiwa poder  "to peform a miracle"
		Sp. poder "power"

(SD) pohpok-ti  		el palpitar, el golpe (del corazón) 
		heartbeat, throb

(SD) polbóra(h)  		pólvora
		gunpowder
		Sp. polvora

(SD) polisiya(h) 		policía
		police
		Sp. policía

(C) porke (conj.)  		porque
		because
		Sp. porque

(SD) porsulana(h), posolana(h)  	sartén 		
		frying pan, cooking dish
		Sp. porcelana

(SD) posah  			pozo
		pool, well
		Sp. poza

(SD) prendamor  		una clase de bejuco
		vine sp.
		Sp. (?)

(SD) presa(h)  			presa
		dam
		Sp. presa

(SD) presisudoh  		con prisa
		hurried, in a hurry
		Sp. presisudo

(SD) presu(h)  		preso, cerrado prisoner
		presus (pl.) 
		Sp. preso

(SD) primah, primoh   	 prima, primo
		cousin
		Sp. prima, primo

(SD) prinsipala(h) 		tercera capitana (en la cofradía) (piŋsipala(h))
		third captainess in the confraternity

(C) prínsipeh   		príncipe
		prince
		Sp. príncipe

(SD) probár, -chiwa    	probar (comida)
		to taste
		Sp. probar

(C) puchina (t.v)  		desplumar, limpiar
		to pluck, to strip, to clean
		puchina (pres.) ni-k-puchina "I'm plucking it"
		puchin-ki (pret.)
		puchin-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. pochina (Sim.) "cardar, peinar la lana, algodón" 
		cf. (SD) puchin, puchuni "to unravel"

(SD) puchini, puchuni (i.v.) 		 deshilar
		to fray, to unravel
		puchini, puchuni  (pres.)
		puchun(-ki) (pret.)
		puchin-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. pochina (Sim.) "cardar, peinar la lana, algodón" 
		cf. (C) puchina "to pluck, to clean"

(C) pu:chu-t  ceiba (pochote)
		silk-cotton tree
		puhpu:chut (pl.) 
		pu:chu-tsin "small ceiba" (ceibita) 
		cf. (?) puchini "to fray, to unravel" 
		CN pocho:tl (Car.); PN *pocho:-
(SD) pu:chu-t            
		
(SD) mu-puhpu:pu:wa (r.v., redup.) 		limpiarse (todo el cuerpo) 
		to clean oneself (one's whole body)
		cf. pu:pu:wa "to clean"

(C) puhpus  				bofe (pulmon)
		lung
		-puhpus (poss.) nu-puhpus "my lung" 
		CN cf. popocactic (Sim.) "inflado, popococac (Sim.) "espumoso"
(SD) puhpus

(C) puhul   			guapote, zambo (pescado, piel liso, negro con bigotes) 
		catfish
		puhpuhul (pl.)

(C) puk-nah  			sucio (como de ropa por del trabajo)
		dirty (e.g. as clothes from working) 
		cf. puk-ti "smoke"
(SD) puk-nah
		puhpuknah (pl.) 

(C) puk-ti 		 humo
		smoke
		i-puk-yu ne ti(:)-t "the fire's smoke (-yu 'intimate poss.') 
		cf.  puk-nah "dirty";  pukwia "to smoke"; pukyuhtuk "smoked"; 
		(?) pupuchwia "to incense"
		CN po:ktli (Car.)
(SD) puk-ti

(C) pukuyuh   			pucuyo, pajaro caballero, pajaro 
		leon, pijuyo, tijul bird sp.
		Sp. pucuyo (?)
(SD) pukuyuh  (pukuyuh) 

(C) pukwia, pukyua (t.v.)  		ahumar
		to smoke, to cure (e.g. meat)
		pukwia, pukyua (pres.)
		pukwih, pukyuh (pret.) ni-k-pukwih, ni-k-pukyuh "I smoked it"     
		pukwih-tuk, pukyuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pukwia  "to be smoking, to smoke something"; pukyuhtuk 
		(adj.) "smoked"; (?) pupuchwia "to incense"
		cf. puk-ti "smoke"
(SD) pukwia

(C) pukyuh-tuk (adj.)  		ahumado, humoso
		smoked, cured; smoky
		cf. pukyua (pukwia) "to smoke", -tuk 'perf.'
		CN cf. pocyo (Sim.) "que produce o contiene humo"

(C) pula  			plátano (plátano macho)  (pulaʔ)
		plantain
		Sp. plátano
(SD) pula

(C) puliwi (i.v.)  		perderse, desaparecerse
		to get lost, to disappear
		puliwi (pres.)
		puliwi-k (pret.) ni-puliwi-k "I got lost"
		pulih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pulua (t.v.) "to lose"
		CN poliwi (Car.)
(SD) puliwi

(C) pulua (t.v.)  		perder
		to lose
		pulua (pres.)
		puluh, pulih (pret.) ki-puluh-ke-t "they lost it"
		puluh-tuk, pulih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. puliwi "to get lost" (SD) pulua (t.v., r.v.)
		mu-pulua "to get lost, to be lost"
		cf. ta-pulua "to be losing, to lose (something)"

(C) pu:lul  			lodo
		mud
		CN cf. coquipololli (Mol.) "lodo"; poloa (Sim.) "preparar el barro, amasar la arcilla"
(SD) pu:lul

(SD) pu:ni (i.v.)  		parir (nacer de animales, plantas), reventar (de plantas, brotón)
		to be born, to bloom (of animals and plants)
		pu:ni (pres.)
		pu:ni-k (pret.)
		pu:ni-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pu:ni a:-t "spring"
		cf. (C) pu:nia (t.v.) "to give birth to"

(C) pu:nia (t.v.) 		 parir
		to give birth to, to bear
		pu:nia (pres.)
		pu:nih (pret.)
		pu:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pu:nia "to bear"
		CN cf. (?) pona:soa (Car.) "hinchar;  ponacoa (Sim.) "llenar de viento alguna cosa"
		cf. (SD) pu:ni (i.v.) "to be born"

(SD) pu:ni a:-t  		fuente donde nace el agua (manantial)
		spring (of water)
		cf. pu:ni "to be born", a:-t "water"

(C) puntah  			punta
		point
		Sp. punta
(SD) puntah
		-punta-chin "point, tip" (-tsin/-chin 'diminutive') 
		i-puntah ne lapis "pencil('s) point"

(SD) puntudu(h)  		puntudo, agudo (puntiagudo)
		sharp, pointed
		Sp. puntudo

(SD) punyuh  			puno, mucho(s)
		lots, a bunch
		Sp. puno

(C) pupuchwia (t.v.) 		 sajumear, sajumar, sahumar (con copal)
		to smoke (with incense), to burn incense for
		pupuchwia (pres.)
		pupuchwih (pret.) ni-k-pupuchwih "I burned incense for it" 
		pupuchwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pupuchwia "to be burning incense"
		cf. (?) puk-ti "smoke", pukwia "to smoke"
		CN popochuia (Sim.) "incensar"
		cf. (SD) i:x-pupuchwia

(C) pupuluka (i.v.) 		 no hablar bien (como tartamudo), tartamudear not to speak 		well, to stutter
		pupuluka (pres.)
		pupuluka-k (pret.)
		pupuluka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pupuluka (n.) "speech or language that cannot be understood, a stutterer"
		CN popoloca (Sim.) "murmurar, hablar entre dientes, hablar una lengua extranjera, 			ser tartamudo"
(SD) pupuluka (i.v.) 	hablar suavecito, calladito 
		to speak softly, to whisper
		ni-pupuluka "I whisper"  (nipupulugaʔ)

(C) pupuluka (n.) 		 habla o lenguaje que no se entiende, el tartamudo
		speech or language that cannot be understood, a stutterer
		cf. pupuluka (n.) "not to speak well, to stutter"
		CN cf. popoloca (Sim.) "murmurar, hablar entre dientes, hablar una lengua extranjera, 			ser tartamudo"

(C) pupu:sah  		pupusa (masa de tortilla en que se ponen cosas, como chicharrón, 					carne, frijoles, queso, etc., y se cocina como tortilla)
		a food made of tortilla dough in which is put, for example, pig rind, meat, beans, 				cheese, etc. and then it is cooked like a tortilla
		puhpupu:sah (pl.) 
		CN cf. (?) popoçactic (Sim.) "inflado"
		Sp. pupusa (?)

(C) pupusuka (i.v., redup.)  		echar espuma, espumar
		to foam
		pupusuka (pres.)
		pupusuka-k (pret.)
		pupusuka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pusu:ni "to foam"
		CN cf.popococa (Sim.) "hervir mucho"

(C) puputuka (n.)  		olor, aroma, buen olor
		nice smell, aroma
		cf. (SD) puputu:ka (i.v.) "to smell good"

(SD) puputu:ka (i.v.)  		oler bien, tener buen olor
		to smell good
		puputu:ka (pres.)
		puputu:ka-k (pret.)
		puputu:ka-tuk (perf.)
		CN  cf.  potonca  (Sim.) "hedor";  potoni (Sim.)  "oler  mal, heder"

(C) pu:pu:wa (t.v., r.v.)  		limpiar(se) (personas), desplumar(se)
		to clean (people), to pluck (feathers)
		pu:pu:wa (pres.) ni-mu-pu:pu:wa "I'm cleaning myself", ni-k-pu:pu:wa "I'm cleaning 			him"
		pu:pu:h (pret.)
		pu:pu:h-tuk (perf.)
		ki-pu:pu:wa ne i-uhmi-yu "she's plucking it (its feathers)" 
		cf. mu-puhpu:pu:wa "to clean oneself", mu-i:xpu:pu:wa  "to clean one's face"; ta-				pu:pu:wa "to be cleaning"
		CN popo:wa (Car.) "to clean"; PN *powa "to clean" (SD) pupu:wa limpiar(se) to 				clean

(SD) pupu:yu-t  		ciego
		blind
		CN cf. (?) popoyotl, pupuyutl (Sim.) "trigo o maíz añublado"

(SD) purga(h)  		purga, purgante 
		purgative
		Sp. purga

(SD) puro, puru    		puro, pura
		pure, clear, genuine, total(ly) 
Sp. puro

(SD) puroh   puro
		cigar
		Sp. puro
		cf. (C) pu:rus

(C) pu:rus   			puro cigar
		Sp. puros
		cf. (SD) puroh

(C) pusa  			grano, nacido (barro) 
		pimple, boil
		CN cf. poçaua (Sim.) "hincharse" 
(SD) pusa  grano grande, nacido
		large pimple, boil

(C) pusteki (t.v.)  		doblar 
		to fold, to bend 
		pusteki (pres.) ni-k-pusteki "I fold it"
		pustek (pret.)
		pustek-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-pusteki "to be folding"
		cf. teki "to cut"
		CN  cf.  posteki (Car.) "quebrar";  poztequi (Sim.)  "romper, quebrar" 
(SD) pusteki  doblar maíz
		to bend corn plants

(C) pustek-tsin 		tortuga de gonce (tortuga que se dobla en medio) 
		turtle sp., small, bends in the middle, lives in dry areas near mater
		cf. pusteki "to fold, to bend", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) pu:su:l  			pozol, pozole 
		posole (corn drink)
		cf. pusu:ni "to foam"; cf. pu:su:lka "dregs"; pu:su:lnah "crumby"
		CN cf. poçol atl (Mol.) "bebida de maíz cocida"
(SD) pusul

(C) -pu:su:l  			mumujo, migaja
		crumbs, grounds, dregs 
		i-pu:su:l "its grounds" 
		cf. pu:su:l "posole" 
		cf. pu:su:lka  "dregs";  pu:su:lnah "crumby"; cf. pusu:ni "to foam"

(C) pu:su:lka  			pozol, chingaste (sedimento, poso), rapa (de café, pozol)
		grounds, dregs
		i-pu:su:lka "its dregs"
		cf. pu:su:l "grounds, crumbs"; cf. pu:su:lnah "crumby", cf. pusu:ni "to foam", -ka 				'perf. nominalization (?)' 
(SD) pusulka  pozol, rapa, chingaste, caxte
		grounds, dregs, left-overs/trimmings

(C) pu:su:l-nah (adj.)  		con migajas (miguero) 
		crumby
		cf. pu:su:l "crumb, grounds"; cf. pu:su:lka "dregs"; pusu:ni "to foam"

(C) pusu:ni (i.v.)  			echar espuma, espumar
		to foam, to froth
		pusu:ni (pres.)
		pusu:ni-k (pret.)
		pusu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mu-pusu:nia "to puff up, to swell"; pupusuka "to foam"
		cf. -pusunka  "foam", pu:su:l "crumbs, grounds"; pu:su:lka "dregs", pu:su:lnah 				"crumby"
		CN poso:ni (Car.) "hervir"; PN *poso:ni "to foam"
(SD) pusu:ni

(C) mu-pusu:nia (r.v.)  		esponjarse
		to puff up, to swell up      
		mu-pusu:nia (pres.)
		mu-pusu:nih (pret.)
		mu-pusu:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. pusu:ni "to foam"
		CN cf. poçonia (Sim.)  "hacer espuma, hervir algo"
(SD) mu-pusu:nia (r.v.)  esponjarse (chompipe, rana)
		to puff up (of turkey, frog)

(SD) -pusunka  			espuma
		foam
		i-pusunka "its foam" (ipusuŋgaʔ)
		cf. pusu:ni "to foam", -ka 'perf. nominalization'
		CN poçoncayotl (Sim.) "espuma"

(SD) pusunkal  			nudo (bola que se forma en un árbol por un machetazo)
		knot (that forms on a tree from a machete chop)
		cf. mu-pusu:nia "to swell up"

(C) pu:te-t 				 chimbolo (pescadito)
		fish sp., small river fish, eaten in pupusas
		puhpu:tet (pl.) 
		pu:te-tsitsn (pl.) "small chimbolo fish" (chimbolito)

(C) pu:tsua (t.v.)  			amontonar, juntar
		to pile up, to accumulate
		pu:tsua (pres.)
		pu:tsuh (pret.)
		pu:tsuh-tuk (perf.) ni-k-pu:tsua "I've piled it up"
		cf. se:m-pu:tsua "to gather in a pile";  cf. teputs "back, hump", (?) -ua 					'passive/inchoative'
(SD) putsua (t.v., r.v.)
		ni-k-putsua "I'm piling it", mu-putsua "it's coming together, accumulating"

(C) puwa (t.v.)  			contar
		to count
		puwa (pres.)  ni-k-puwa "I count it" 
		puh-ki (pret.)
		puh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. se:m-puwal "five"
		CN po:wa (Car.); PN *po(wa)
(SD) puwa
		puh-ki (pret.)
		puh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. puwal "five ears of corn"

(SD) puwal  				cinco mazorcas
		five ears of corn

(C) puxa:wa-k  			puspo, arrugado (en el agua)
		wrinkled (in water)
		CN cf. poxauac (Sim.) "esponjoso, blando"
		cf. (SD) puxa:wak "maíz negrito"

(SD) puxa:wak 			 maíz negrito
		small black corn (fungused corn (?))
		CN cf. (?) poxcauhqui (Sim.) "emohecido, aherrumbrado" 
		cf. (C) puxa:wak "wrinkled (in water)"

(C) puyek  			salado
		salty
		CN poyec (Sim.) "salado"
(SD) puyek

(SD) puyu(h)  			pichón (pollo, todavía no maduro) 
		young chicken, pullet
		Sp. pollo
(Izalco) puyu 	gallo
		rooster

(SD) pwenteh  		puente 
		bridge
		Sp. puente

(SD) pwerkah, as in:  		a-la-pwerkah "a la puerca!" (¡híjole!) 
		"son-of-a-gun" (euphemistic invective)
		Sp. a la puerca
(C) pwes  			pues
		well, then
		Sp. pues
	
(C) pwetsoh  			puesto
		post, position, job
		Sp. puesto

R
	
(SD) rábiya(h)  		rabia
		rabies
		Sp. rabia

(C) ranah   			 rana (rana, sapo)
		frog, toad
		Sp. rana
(SD) ranah
	
(SD) ra:sah 			 raza
		race, breed
		Sp. raza
	
(SD) rastruh  			rastro
		trail, trace, vestige
		Sp. rastro
	
(SD) ra:tuh   			rato
		a while, a short space of time 
		Sp. rato
	
(SD) rayis 			raíz
		-ráyis-yu (poss.) 
		rahrayis (pl.) 
		Sp. raíz (ráiz local pronunciation)

(SD) rebolber, -chiwa  	revolver (mezclar)
		to revolve, to ;mix
		Sp. revolver
	
(SD) -rebos  			rebozo
		shawl
		nu-rebos "my shawl"
		Sp. rebozo

(SD) rebwelto(h), rewelto(h)  	revuelto, mixto, mezclado 
		mixed together
		Sp. revuelto
	
(SD) rechasiar, -chiwa  	rechazar
		to reject, to refuse
		Sp. rechazar (rechacear (?))
	
(SD) rede(h)  			rede, red
		net
		Sp. rede

(SD) re(:)ha(h) 		cárcel
		jail
		Sp. reja

(SD) rekesón  			requesón
		a cheese like cottage cheese, curd 
		Sp. requesón

(SD) rektu(h)  			recto, derecho
		straight
		Sp. recto

(SD) relinchár, -chiwa   	 relinchar
		to whinny, to neigh
		Sp. relinchar

(SD) remi(y)enda(h)  		remienda 
		patch
		Sp. remienda

(SD) repoya(h) 		 repollo 
		cabbage
		Sp. repollo

(SD) resar, -chiwa    		rezar
		to pray
		Sp. rezar

(SD) rewelto(h), rebwelto(h)  		revuelto, mixto, mezclado 
		mixed together
		Sp. revuelto

(C) re:y 		 rey
		king
		Sp. rey

(SD) rikuh   		rico  (rrikuh) 
		rich 
		Sp. rico

(SD) rinyón    		riñón
		kidney
		Sp. riñón
(SD) romatis   			reumatismo 
		rheumatism
		Sp. reumatismo

(SD) rongear, -chiwa    	roncar 
		to snore
		Sp. roncar (ronquear (?))

(SD) rosado(h) 		 rosado
		pink
		Sp. rosado

(SD) rudah  			ruda
		plant sp., rue plant, good for ear aches, bad feelings; it is used for baths

(SD) rweda(h)  		rueda
		wheel
		Sp. rueda

(SD) rwedo(h)  		ruedo 
		hem (of skirt) 
		Sp. ruedo

S
	
(SD) saboreár, -chiwa    		probar (comida)
		to taste, to try (food)
		Sp. saborear
	
(C) sahsaka (t.v., redup. (?)		acarrear
		to carry, to cart
		sahsaka (pres.) ni-k-sahsaka "I'm carting it" [niksahsagaʔ)
		sahsak (pret.)
		sahsak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-sahsaka "to be carting, carrying"
		CN saka (Car.) "acarrear algo"
(SD) sahsaka
		sahsak (pret.) ki-sahsah-ke-t "they carted it"
	
(C) sahsayti (i.v. (?))  			erizarse de miedo
		for one's hair to stand on end from fear
		(note: if this form is a verb, it appears only in present tense; it may be a noun or 				adjective, which bears subject pronominal prefixes)
		ni-sahsayti "my hair is standing from fear" 
		ti-sahsayti "your hair is standing from fear" 
		ti-sahsayti-t "our hair is standing from fear" 
		cf. (SD) tesahsay "dangerous"
	
(C) sah-ti  		cera
		wax
		-sah (poss.) i-sah "its wax, his wax" 
		cf. (SD) serah "wax"

(SD) sakakalsón  		quita-calzón (una avispota) 
		wasp sp., large, "takes-pants-off"
		Sp. saca calzon

(C) sakamiyawal  		flor de zacate (zacate para hacer figuras, juguetes)
		grass/straw with which figurines, toys are made
		cf. saka-t "grass"
		cf. sakana:wal

(C) saka-na:wal    		flor de zacate, zacate de savana (zacate para figuras y juguetes)
		grass/straw sp., from which figurines and toys are made
		cf. saka-t "grass", na:wal ('witch, transformer'(?))
		CN cf. (?) cacanaualtia (Sim.) "esconderse entre las hierbas"  
		(SD) saka-na:wal	 cameconejo (un zacatillo que crece como un sólo colchón)
		grass sp., grows in a solid mat
	
(C) saka-t  			zacate, paja (para casa)
		grass, straw (for roofs)
		sahsakat (pl.) 
		CN sakatl (Car.) "paja"; PN *saka-
(SD) saka-t  (sagat)
(SD) sakatal  			potrero 
		pasture
		cf. saka-t "grass", -ta(:)l 'place of' (perhaps influenced by Sp. zacatal)

(C) sakatepe:-t  		Piltepeque (nombre de un volcancito)
		Piltepeque (name of a small mountain)
		cf. saka-t "grass", tepe:-t "mountain"

(SD) sakatinta(h) 		 hierba de tinta
		plant sp., "ink plant" 
		Sp. saca-tinta

(SD) sakristán  		sacristán 
		sacristan, sexton
		Sp. sacristán

(SD) saku  			eje
		axil
		Sp. (?) saco

(C) sala  			pantalón, calzón  (salaʔ)
		pants, trousers
		nu-sala "my pants"
		i-sahsala (pl.) "his pants" 
		Sp. zaragüelles
(SD) sala

(C) sala:mah  			salamo (árbol)
		tree sp.
		Sp. salamo, salama (?)
		cf. (SD) salamu(h)

(SD) salamu(h)  		salamo (árbol) tree sp.
		Sp. salamo
		cf. (C) sala:mah

(SD) salsa(h) 			 salsa
		sauce
		Sp. salsa

(SD) saltu(h)  			salto de agua
		waterfall
		(SD) salto

(C) sa:lua (t.v., r.v.)  		pegar (con goma, pegamento)
		to stick, to glue
		sa:lua (pres.)
		sa:luh (pret.) ni-k-sa:luh "I glued it, I stuck it on", mu-sa:luh "it stuck" 
		sa:luh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. sasa:lik "sticky"
		CN sa:loa (Car.) "pegar" 
(SD) salua

(SD) saludár, -chiwa   	 saludar 
		to greet
		Sp. saludar

(C) sama:wa (i.v.)  		abundar
		to abound
		sama:wa (pres.)
		sama:wa-k (pret.)
		sama:wa-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. (?) çaçamaua (Sim.) "estar acabado" 
(SD) sama:wa

(SD) samuka(h)  		chicha (samuka(h))
		chicha (fermented drink)
		Sp. samuca, samugo, zamuja (?)

(C) -san (clitic, suffix) 	 mismo, justamente, sólo 
		same, self, just, only
		naha-san "I myself, myself"
		yaha-san "he/she him/herself, him/herself" se:-san "only one"
		ni:ka-san "right here" (aquí no más)
		CN çan (Sim.) "solamente, pero"
(SD) -san

(SD) san  			ahora
		(right) now
		CN (?) san (Car.); çan (Sim.) "solamente"

(SD) san salbadór  		San Salvador
		San Salvador (place name, capitol of El Salvador) 
		Sp. San Salvador

(SD) sanaória(h)  		zanahoria
		carrot
		Sp. zanahoria

(C) sándiya  			sandía
		watermellon
		Sp. sandia
(SD) sandiya(h)

(C) sanka (also sa:nka)  	mentira  (saŋgaʔ)
		lie (falsehood)
		sahsanka (pl.) 
		CN cf. (?) çaçan (Sim.) "sin razón, no importa"

(SD) sankudu(h)  		zancudo
		mosquito
		Sp. zancudo

(SD) santa-krus  		cruz, la santa cruz 
		cross, Holy Cross
		Sp. santa cruz

(SD) santu(h)  			santo 
		saint
		Sp. santo

(C) sanuk  			hasta ahora
		up to now, just now 
		sanuk ti-w:its "only  now you are  arriving" (hasta ahora venís)
		cf. san "now", -uk ('still, now, even')

(SD) sapatero(h)  		zapatero
		shoemaker
		Sp. zapatero

(C) sapeh 			 zape! (para espantar gato)
		"shoo" (said to frighten cats away)
		Sp. zape
(SD) sapeh

(SD) sapiyuh  			renacuajo, tepocate 
		tadpole
		Sp. sapillo

(SD) sapuh 			 sapo
		toad
		Sp. sapo
		cf. ranah "frog, toad"

(SD) sarampion   		 sarampion 
		measles
		Sp. sarampion

(SD) sardina(h)  		sardina 
		sardine, any small fish 
		Sp. sardina

(SD) sarten, sartena    		sartén 
		frying pan, cooking dish 
		Sp. sartén

(C) sasa:lik  			pegajoso
		sticky
		cf. sa:lua "to stick, to glue" 
		CN cacalic (Sim.) "pegajoso"
(SD) sasalik, sa:salik

(SD) sastre(h)  		sastre
		tailor
		Sp. sastre

(C) sa:wa-t 			 grano (barro) 
		pimple, boil 
		-sa:wa-w (poss.) nu-sa:wa-w "my pimple"
		sahsa:wat (pl.) 
		CN cf. sawatl (Car.) "sarna, viruela" çauatl (Sim.) "viruelas, roña"
(SD) sa:wa-t

(SD) sayul-in  			mosquito
		gnat, small fly sahsayulin (pl.) 
		CN sa:yo:lin (Car.) "mosco"; çayolin (Sim.) "mosca, mosquito"

(C) se: 				uno, un/una  (se:ʔ)
	one, a/an
	cf. se:n- 'together';  sehsé:  ika "one by one"; se maya se: "only one"; se:-san "only one, 			one alone"; se:yuk "another"
	CN se: (Car.); PN *se:
(SD) se:
	cf. se:-chín "the only one, unique"; sehsé: "each one"; seman "now, today"; se:mpa 			"again"

(SD) seboya(h)  		cebolla
		onion	
		Sp. cebolla

(SD) -sebuh-yu  		sebo
		tallow, grease
		i-sebu-yu "its grease, its tallow" 
		Sp. sebo, -yu 'intimate poss.'

(SD) se:-chín  			único
		the only one, unique
		cf. se: "one", -tsin/-chin 'diminutive'

(SD) se(:)grur(h)  		cedro
		cedar
		Sp. cedro (cegro local pronunciation)

(SD) seguru(h)  		seguro (seguruʔ), (seguruh) 
		certain, sure
		Sp. seguro

(SD) sehsé:  			cada uno
		each one
		cf. se: "one" (pl.) 
		CN cece(n) (Sim.) "cada (uno)"

(C) sehse: ika  			uno por uno
		one by one
		cf. sehsé: "each one", ika "therefore"

(C) sehsen-nah  		ralo  (sehseŋnah)
		thin (of liquids)
		cf. (?) se: "one", sehse: "each one", -nah 'adj.'

(SD) se:kit  			¿quienes?
		who? (pl.) 
		cf. (?) se: "one", -t (pl.)      
		CN cf. (?) cequi (Sim.) "algo, alguna cosa"

(C) sek-kalaki (i.v., incorp.)  		enhelarse, resfriarse (enfriarse) (sek-galakiʔ)
		to get cold, to catch cold
		cf. sesek "cold", kalaki "to enter"
(SD) sek-kalaki
		sekkalak (pret.) 	sekkalah-ke-t "they got cold"

(C) sek-miki (i.v., incorp.) 		 tener frio, sentir frio
		to be cold, to feel cold
		ni-sek-miki "I'm cold"  (nisekmigiʔ)		cf. sesek "cold", miki "to die"
		CN cf. cecmiqui (Sim.) "morir de frío"
(SD) sek-miki

(C) sekta:kayul  		un frío (persona friolenta, persona que por poco se siente frío)
		a cold person, one who feels cold easily
		cf. sesek "cold", (?) ta:ka-t "man"

(C) -se:l (sustantivo relacional) 	sólo, solito (solitario)
		alone (relational noun)
		nu-se:l "by myself, me alone"
		nu-se:l-tsin "all by myself, me all alone" (yo solito) 
		i-se:l "by him/her/itself", "he/she/it alone"
		cf. (?) se: "one"
		CN se:l (Car.) "sólo" 
(SD) -se:l

(C) selek  			tierno (inmaduro) 
		tender, young, immature 
		sehselek (pl.) 
		CN selik (Car.); selic (Sim.) "fresco, verde, tierno, nuevo, agradable"; PN *səli-k
(SD) selek
		cf. selek me:ts-ti "new moon"

(SD) selek me:ts-ti  		luna nueva
		new moon
		cf. selek "immature", me:ts-ti "moon"

(C) selia (t.v.)  		aguantar
		to withstand, to put up with, to bear, to endure, to abide 
		selia (pres.)
		selih (pret.) ti-k-selih-ke-t "we put up with him"
		selih-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. selia (Car.) "recibir, hospedar"
(SD) selia

(SD) seman  			ahora, hoy
		now, today
		cf. (?) se: "one", -man ('temporal suffix')

(C) se maya se:  		sólo uno
		only one
		cf. se: "one", maya "only"
(SD) se: maya se:

(SD) se:mpa  			otra vez  (se:mpaʔ)
		again
		cf. se:(n)- 'one', -pa ('times')
		cf. (SD) se-pa 

(C) se:m-pu:tsua (t.v.)  		amontonar, recoger en un montón 
		to pile together, to accumulate
		cf. se:n- 'together, one', pu:tsua "to pile up" 
		ni-k-se:mpu:tsua "I'm gathering it in a pile"

(C) se:mpuwal  			cinco; flor de muerto
		five; flower sp., lily (?)
		cf. se:(n)- 'one', puwa "to count", -l 'passive nominlatization'
		CN cempoalli (Sim.) "veinte,  para contar seres animados, los objetos planos, 				delgados"
(SD) se(:)mpuwal  flor de muerto
		flower sp., lily (?)

(C, SD) se:(n)-  			'uno, junto(s)' (en palabras compuestas) 
		'one, together' (in compounds) 

(SD) se:nah  				cena
		dinner
		Sp. cena

(SD) se:nkak (adj.) 			 juntos, estar juntos (se: ŋgak)
		together, to be together
		cf. se:(n)- 'together',  ka-k ('to be'); cf. ihka-tuk "to be standing" 
		CN cf. (?) cenca (Sim.) "completamente", ca "to be"

(C) se:n-takwa (i.v.)  			comer juntos 
		to eat together
		ti-se:ntakwah-ke-t "we ate together"
		cf. se:(n)- 'together', ta-kwa "to eat"
(SD) se:n-takwa

(C) se:n-ta:lia (t.v., r.v.) 	 	reunir(se), unir(se), recoger, poner junto(s)
		to meet, to join together, to unite, to gather, to put together
		cf. se:(n)- 'together', ta:lia "to sit, to place" 
		ti-se:nta:lia-t "we are joining, putting (them together)" 
		ti-mu-se:nta:lia-t "we meet, we join"
(SD) se:n-ta:lia

(C) se:n-talua (t.v.)  			regar (esparcir)
	to scatter
	cf. se:(n)- 'together, one', talua "to run"
(SD) se:n-talua
(C) se:ntapal  				otro lado (p. ej. de un río)
		the other side, opposite bank
		cf. se:(n)- 'one'
		CN centlapal (Sim.) "por un lado, por el otro lado" 
(SD) se:ntapal  el otro lado del río
		the other side of the river, opposite bank

(SD) sentar, mu-chiwa (r.v.)  		cuajarse
		to congeal, to coagulate
		Sp. sentar(se)

(C) se:n-temu (i.v.)  			bajarse juntos
		to come down together, to descend together 
		ti-se:ntemu-ke-t "they came down together" 
		cf. se:(n)- 'together', temu "to come down"
(SD) se:n-temu

(C) se:n-tepe:wa (t.v.)  		amontonar
		to pile up, to heap together 
		ni-k-se:ntepe:h-a "I already heaped it together" 
		cf. se:(n)- 'together', tepe:wa "to heap up"

(SD) senteyah  			rayo centella (relámpago)
		lightning
		Sp. centella

(SD) -sentiduh  			sienes
		temples (of head)
		Sp. sentido

(SD) sentir, -chiwa  			sentir to feel, to sense
		Sp. sentir

(SD) se(:)ntsuna-t  			Sonsonate (nombre de pueblo) 
		Sonsonate (town name, departmental capital) 
		cf. sinsonta "mocking bird sp."; cf. a:-t "water, river" 
		CN cf. centzontli (Sim.) "sinsontle" (bird sp.)
		cf. (C) la:bi(:)yah

(C) se-pa, sepaya  			otra vez (sepaʔ)
		again
		cf. se: "one", -pa ('times'), -ya 'already'
		cf. (SD) se:mpa
		CN cf. ceppa (Sim.) "una vez"

(SD) sepiyu(h)  			cepillo
		brush
		Sp. cepillo

(SD) serah  				cera
		wax
		i-serah-yu "its wax" (-yu 'intimate poss.')
		Sp. cera
		cf. (C) sah-ti

(SD) serah-kastiya  			sera de candela (serahkastiyaʔ)
		candle wax
		Sp. cera "wax", castilla "Spanish (Spain)"

(SD) serbesa(h)  			cerveza
		beer
		Sp. cerveza

(C) se:-san  				uno sólo, sólo uno
		only one, one alone
		cf. se: "one", -san "alone, only"
(SD) se-san

(SD) sesek (adj.)  			frío
		cold
		cf. seseya "to get cold"
		CN cecek (Mol.)

(SD) sesek-apan  			Río Haragan, Río Frío (nombre de un río) (sesegapaŋ)
		"Lazy River, Cold River" (name of a river)
		cf. sesek "cold", a:pan "river"

(SD) sesek-e:lu-t  			elote tierno  
		immature ear of corn
		cf. sesek "cold", e:lu-t "roasting ear, ear of corn"

(SD) sesek-tutu:nik  			paludismo
		maleria
		cf. sesek "cold", tutu:nik "hot"

(C) seseya (i.v.)  			enfriarse
		to cool off, to get cold
		seseya (pres.) ni-seseya "I'm getting cold"
		seseya-k (pret.)
		seseya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. sesek "cold", -ya 'inchoative'
		CN ceceya (Sim.)
(SD) seseya

(SD) -se:suh  				seso
		brains
		i-se:suh "his/her/its brains"
		Sp. seso

(C) setakutun  				pedazo de carne (partido en trocitos)
		a small, cut-up piece of meat
		cf. (?) se: "one", ta-kutun "piece"

(C) se:wi (i.v.)  			apagarse
		to go out, to die out, to become extinguished
		se:wi (pres.)
		se:wi-k (pret.)
		se:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. se:wia (t.v.) "to extinguish", mu-se:wia "to rest"
		CN se:wi (Car.) "descansar,  parar";  ceui (Sim.) "apagarse"; PN *se:wi
		cf. (SD) se:wi (t.v.) "to extinguish"

(SD) se:wi (t.v.)  			apagar
		to put out, to extinguish
		(also sewi)
		se(:)wi (pres.)
		sew-ki (pret.) ni-k-sew-ki "I put it out" (niksewgiʔ)
		sew-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-se(:)wi "to put (something) out"; mu-se(:)wi "to rest" 
		cf.  (C) se:wi (i.v.) "to go out, to be extinguished", se:wia (t.v.) "to extinguish"
(SD) mu-se(:)wi (r.v.)  	descansar
		to rest
		cf. mu- 'reflexive', se(:)wi "to extinguish"
		CN se:wi (Car.) "descansar"; mo-ceuia (Sim.) "descansar"
		cf. (C) mu-se:wia "descansar"

(C) se: xiwi-t  			el año pasado
		last year
		cf. se: "one", xiwi-t ('year' (?))
		CN cf. xiwitl (Car.) "año"; ce xiuitl (Sim.) "un año"
(SD) se: xiwi-t

(SD) Sp. seyoh  		sello
		seal, stamp
		Sp. sello

(C) se:yuk  			otro
		other, another
		cf. se:- 'one', -uk ('still, yet, now, more (over), even') 
		CN cf. (?) oc cequi (Mol.)
(SD) se:yuk  otro
		other, another
		uk se:yuk "another, yet another"

(C) se:wia (t.v.)  			apagar
		to put out, to extinguish
		se:wia (pres.) ni-k-se:wia "I put it out"
		se:wih (pret.)
		se:wih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. se:wi (i.v.) "to go out"; mu-se:wia "to rest"
		CN ceuia (Sim.) "apagar"
		cf. (SD) se(:)wi "to put out, extinguish"

(C) mu-se:wia (i.v.) 			 descansar
		to rest
		cf. mu- 'reflexive', se:wia "to extinguish"
		CN se:wi (Car.) "descansar"; moceui (Sim.) "descansar" 
		cf. (SD) mu-se(:)wi

(SD) sigír, -chiwa  			perseguir
		to persecute, to follow
		Sp. seguir

(C) si:l-in  caracolito del mar
		small sea snail
		sihsi:lin (pl.) 
		CN cilin (Mol.) "caracol chiquito"

(SD) -si:nchuh 			ceñidor
		loincloth, breechclout, belt i-si:nchuh "his loincloth"
		cf. sinidór
		Sp. cincho

(SD) sindigo  				síndico
		town secretary or treasurer (municipal office)
		Sp. síndico

(SD) sin-e:-t  				frijol de milpa  (siŋe:t)
		cornfield bean
		cf. sin-ti "ear of corn", e:-t "bean"

(C) sinidór  				ceñidor
		loincloth, breechclout
		Sp. ceñidor
(SD) sinidor

(SD) sinsonta    			sensontle, sinsontle, sinsonta
		mocking bird sp.
		Sp. sinsonta (originally borrowed from Pipil into Sp. and then back into Pipil from 			Sp.)

(C) sin-ti   				maíz, mazorca
		corn, ear of corn, corn still on cob
		CN sintli (Car.) "maiz"; PN *sən-
(SD) sin-ti
		-sin (poss.)  nu-sin "my corn"
		sihsinti (pl.) 

(C) sintupil    			procesión  de elotes (procesión para celebrar que tienen   						nuevamente maicito, dando gracias por el maicito nuevo)
		procession to celebrate and give thanks for new corn
		cf. sin-ti "corn", tupil "staff"

(SD) sinyir, mu-chiwa  		cenirse
		to gird oneself, to wear a loincloth
		Sp. ceñirse

(SD) sipitiyuh  			"el sipitillo", "el sombreron"
		The Sipitillo, a supernatural being, small with a big hat, like the headless horseman 
		Sp. sipitillo (presumably originally borrowed from Pipil into Sp.; cf. CN tzipinalhuia 			(Sim.) "encantar a alguién" 

(SD) siriyales  			cirial, ciriales
		processional candleholder(s) of the church
		Sp. ciriales

(SD) sírkulu(h)   			círculo
		circle
		Sp. círculo

(C) si:tal  				estrella
		star
		sihsi:tal (pl.) 
		CN si:talin (Car.)
(SD) si:tal

(SD) si:tal alakrán  			alacrán (una constelación) 
		a constellation
		cf. si:tal "star", Sp. alacran "scorpion"

(SD) -siwa:-kune:-w  			hija
		daughter
		nu-siwa:kune:-w "my daughter"
		cf. siwa:-t "woman", kune:-t "child"

(SD) siwa:-kuyame-t  			tunca, marrana (puerca)
		sow
		cf. siwa:-t "woman", kuyame-t "pig"

(C) siwa:mun ramo:nah, siwarramona(h) 	 plátano asado (pájaro)
		bird sp., "fried plantain"
		cf. siwa:mu:n-ti  "daughter-in-law,  girlfriend", Sp. ramona, siwa:-t "woman"

(C) siwa:-mu:n-ti  			nuera, novia
		daughter-in-law, girlfriend, bride
		-siwa:mu:n  (poss.) nu-siwa:mu:n  "my  daughter-in-law,  my girlfriend"
		cf. siwa:-t "woman", mu:n-ti "son-in-law, boyfriend"
		CN ciuamontli (Sim.) "nuera"
(SD) siwa:mu:n-ti

(C) siwa:na:wal  		"la siguanaba" (ser sobrenatural, como la sirena) 
		supernatural being, woman like the siren
		cf. siwa:-t "woman", na:wal ('witch, transformer'); (see text S of chapter 7)
(SD) siwa:na:wal  		"la siguanaba", "la siguamonta"

(C) siwa:pah 			 ciguapate (arbusto medicinal)
		bush sp., medicinal
		cf. siwa:-t "woman", pah-ti "medicine"
		CN ciuapatli (Sim.) "planta medicinal" 
(SD) siwa:pah

(C) siwa:pala  			puta, prostituta
		whore, prostitute
		sihsiwa:pala, sihsiwa:palamet (pl.) 
		cf. siwa:-t "woman", pala "old, rotten"; cf. ta:ka-pala "bum, lazy man"

(C) siwa:pil  			muchacha (una joven de 12 a 18 anos)
		girl (12 to 18 years old)
		sihsiwa:pilmet (pl.) 
		cf. siwa:-t "woman", -pil ('child' (?)) 
		CN cf. ciuapilli (Sim.) "dama, señora"
(SD) siwa:pil

(C) siwarramona(h), siwa:mu:n ramona(h) 		plátano asado (pájaro)
		bird sp., "fried plantain"
		cf. siwa:-t "woman", Sp. ramona, siwa:mu:n-ti "girlfriend, daughter-in-law"
(C) siwa:-t  			mujer, esposa
		woman, wife
		-siwa:-w (poss.) "wife" nu-siwa:-w "my wife" 
		sihsiwatket (pl.) "women"
		-sihsiwa:-wan (poss. pl.) "wives"
		cf. siwa:-mu:n-ti "daughter-in-law, girlfriend", siwa:na:wal "the siguanaba 				(supernatural being)", siwa:pah "ciguapate bush", siwa:pala "prostitute", siwa:pil 			"girl"
	CN siwa:tl (Car.)
(SD) siwa:-t
		-siwa:-wan, -sihsiwa:-w (poss. pl.)
		cf. -siwa:kune:-w "daughter", siwa:kuyame-t "sow"

(SD) si(y)ete-kabritu(h)   		siete cabrillas (constelación)
		a constellation ("seven kid goats") 
		cf. Sp. siete, cabrito

(SD) si(y)elu(h)  			cielo
		sky, heaven
		Sp. cielo

(SD) siyuhti  				una vez 
		once, one time 
		ne siyuhti "once"

(SD) sobra(h), -chiwa   		sobrar 
		to be left over, to be extra
		cf. sohsobras "left-overs, surplus" Sp. sobra(s)

(SD) -sobrina(h), -sobrino(h) 
		niece, nephew
		Sp. sobrina, sobrino

(SD) sohsobras (pl.)   			sobras
		left-overs, surplus
		Sp. sobras

(SD) sombra(h)  			sombra
		shade
		cf. -sombrah-yu "shadow"
		Sp. sombra

(SD) -sombrah-yu  			sombra (de uno)
		shadow
		nu-sombrah-yu "my shadow"
		Sp. sombra, -yu 'intimate poss.'
(SD) sope  				zopilote
		buzzard, vulture
		Sp. zope, sope (local variant of zopilote)

(SD) sorriyuh  			zorrillo
		skunk
		Sp. zorrillo

(C) su  					si, no
		if, whether, no
		cf. tesu "no" (i.e. te:- + su)
		cf. su a:kah "nobody"; su datka "nothing"
(SD) su  si
		if, whether

(C) su a:kah  				ninguno, nadie (su a:gah)
		cf. su  "if, no"
		CN cf. akaʔ (Car.) "alguien, alguno"; ayac (Mol.) "nadie" 
		cf. (SD) tesu a:kah

(C) su datka  				nada
		nothing
		su datka ni-k-piya "I don't have anything" (no tengo nada) 
		cf. su "if, no" datka ('something (?)); cf. tesu datka 
		cf. (SD) te: datka "nothing"

(SD) sudár, -chiwa  			sudar
		to sweat
		Sp. sudar

(SD) suhsul  				mucho, bastante
		much, a lot
		CN cf. (?) çoçolli (Sim.) "basura", çolli (Sim.) "viejo, pasado"

(SD) su:hyak  				olor de quemado, olor de chamuscado
		burnt smell
		cf. (i)hyak "smell"
		cf. (C) tsu:hyak

(C) su kanah 				 no hay
		there is/are not
		cf. su "no", kanah ('where, there is/are')

(C) suki-t  				barro
		clay
		-suki-w (poss.) nu-suki-w "my clay"
		CN sokitl (Car.) "lodo"; çoquitl (Sim.) "mezcla de barro y paja"
(SD) suki-t (sugit)

(C) su:l-in  				godorniza, codorníz
		quail
		suhsu:lin (pl.) 
		CN çolin (Sim.)
		cf. (SD) su:lin "toddler"

(SD) su:l-in  				niño que empieza a andar, a parar 
		toddler, baby learning to walk
		cf. (C) su:lin "quail"

(C) sulu:ni (i.v.)  			hincharse, inflamarse
		to swell
		sulu:ni (pres.) ni-sulu:ni "I'm swelling up"
		sulu:ni-k (pret.)
		sulu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. sulu:n-tuk (adj.) "swollen"
		CN cf. (?) solo:ni (Car.) "ir con ímpetu y  ruido"; çoloni (Sim.) "fluir con estrepito,  			impetuosidad, hablando de una corriente de agua"
(SD) sulu:ni

(C) sulu:n-tuk (adj.)  			hinchado, con hinchazón
		swollen, with swelling
		suhsulu:ntuk (pl.) 
		cf. sulu:ni "to swell", -tuk 'perf.'
		cf. ma:sulu:ntuk "with swollen  arm"; ikxisulu:ntuk "with swollen mouth"; 				ihtisulu:ntuk "with swollen belly"

(C) su:ma (t.v.)  			pelear, pegar
		to fight, to hit
		su:ma (pres.)
		su:n-ki (pret.) ni-k-su:n-ki "I hit him" (niksu: ŋgiʔ)
		su:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-su:ma "to be fighting"
		CN cf. so:ma (Car.) "fruncir"; coma (Sim.) "poner cara de enojo, fruncir las cejas, 			arrojarse al suelo"
(SD) su:ma (t.v., r.v.)    pelear(se), pegar
		to fight, to hit
		ni-k-su:ma "I'm hitting him"
		ni-mu-su:ma "I'm fighting (with someone)"

(SD) sumbadora(h)  			zumbadora (culebra)
		snake sp., "hisser"
		Sp. zumbadora
(SD) surkuh  				surco 
		furrow
	Sp. surco

(C) suta:wa (i.v.)  			cansarse
		to tire, to get tired
		suta:wa (pres.) ni-suta:wa "I'm getting tired"
		suta:h (pret.)
		suta:h-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. sotla:wa (Car.) "desmayarse"; PN *so:tla(wa) "to fade, tire, be afraid"
(SD) suta:wa
		suta:wa-k (pret.)
		suta:wa-tuk (perf.)
		cf. sutawaya "to tire, to be exhausted"

(SD) sutawaya  			cansarse, jadearse
		to be tired, exhausted, to pant
		sutawaya (pres.)
		sutawaya-k (pret.)
		sitawaya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. suta:wa "to tire", -ya 'inchoative' (?)

(C) su:tuma, su:tumi (i.v.)  		descoser
		to come undone, to come unsewn, to unsew (?)
		su:tuma, su:tumi (pres.) (?)
		su:tumi-k (pret.)
		su:tun-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. toma (UC) "desatar, soltar"; cf. cotl (Sim.) "pieza de tela, ropa blanca", 				toma/tuma (Sim.) "desatarse, deshacerse", tomi/tumi (Sim.) "abrirse, desatarse"
(SD) sutuma (t.v.) 	desatar
		to untie
		sutuma (pres.)
		sutun-ki (pret.)
		sutun-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-sutuma "to untie (something)"; cf. sutumi-k "loose, untied"

(SD) sutumi-k (adj.)  suelto
		loose, undone, untied
		cf. sutuma "to untie", -k 'adj.'

(C) suwa (t.v.)  			tender
		to spread out, to stretch out, to hang out 
		suwa (pres.) ni-k-suwa "I'm spreading it out" 
		suh-ki (pret.)
		suh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-suwa "to be spreading"
		CN coa (Sim.) "abrir, extender"; sowa (UC) "tender"
	(SD) suwa
		suh-ki (pret.)
		suh-tuk (perf.)
		xi-k-suwa "spread it!"
	
(C) su:yakal  					suyacal (capa de palma para la lluvia)
		palm-leaf rain cape
		-su:yakal (poss.) nu-su:yakal "my suyacal/palm rain cape" 
		suhsu:yakal (pl.) 
		cf. (?) su:ya- ('palm' (?)), -kal "house"
		CN cf. coyatl (Sim.) "palmera"
	
(Jicalapa) suya-t  			sombrero
		hat
		CN cf. çoyatl (Sim.) "palmera"
	
(SD) swabeh-chín  			en voz baja
		whisper, quiet
		Sp. suave, -tsin/-chin 'diminutive'
	
(C) -swe:grah   			suegra
		mother-in-law
		Sp. suegra

(SD) -swe:grah, -swe:groh    		suegra, suegro 
		mother-in-law, father-in-law
		Sp. suegra, suegro

T
	
(C) ta:  				¿qué?, que
		what
		ta: uni "what is it?" (¿Qué es?)
		ta: ti-k-chih-ki "what did you do?"
		ta: panu-k "what happened, what passed?" (¿Qué paso?) 
		CN tle (Car.); tlein (Sim.); PN *tla-
		cf. (SD) tay
	
(C) -ta:bah, -ta:wah  			rodilla, rótula
		knee, kneecap
		Sp. taba

(C) tachalis  				la vista
		sight
		i-tachalis "his/her/its sight" 
		nu-tachalis "my sight"
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', chiya "to look", -li-s 'nominalization'
		CN tlachializtli (Mol.)

(SD) tachalis  				el ser (de una persona), la forma de uno, la apariencia,  						la clase de cara de uno (p. ej. se usa para decir que un 						niño parece a su padre o a su madre)
		one's appearance, one's being, one's form, one's looks (e.g. used to say that a child 		looks like its father or mother)

(C) ta-chalua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  	pegar, golpear
		to hit, to beat, to be hitting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', chalua "to hit, to beat"
(SD) tachalua

(C) tachani  				tenguereche, mirón (lagartija)
		lizard sp., "starer"
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', chiya "to look", -ni 'agent'
		CN cf. tlachiani (Sim.) "observador, el que mira"

(SD) ta-chaya:wa (t.v., unspec. obj.)		tender, extender 
		to extend, to stretch, to be stretching
		ta- 'unspec. obj.', chaya:wa "to extend, to stretch 

(SD) ta-chichina (t.v., unspec.obj.)		fumar
		to smoke, to be smoking
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', chichina "to smoke"

(C) ta-chihcha (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		escupir
		to spit
		ta- 'unspec. obj.', chihcha "to spit"
(SD) ta-chihcha

(C) tachihchal  saliva
		spit, saliva
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj., chihcha "to spit", -l 'passive nominalization'
(SD) chihchal

(SD) ta-chihchimi (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		tentar
		to touch, to feel
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', chihchimi "to touch"

(C) tachipah-tuk (adj.)  			claro, algo claro
		clear, somewhat clear
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', chip(a:w)ak "clear", -tuk 'perf.'
		CN cf. tlachipaua (Sim.) "lucir, amanecer, brillar"

(C) ta-chiya (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		mirar, esperar
		to look, to wait, to be looking, to be waiting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', chiya "to look"
(SD) ta-chiya (t.v.),  unspec. obj.)  	mirar, esperar, alcararse (el cielo, el sol), abrir los ojos 						por primera vez (como de los animales recién nacidos)
		to look, to wait, to clear up (sky, weather), to open eyes for the first time (of newly 		born animals), to be looking, to be waiting

(C) ta-chpa:na (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		barrer
		to sweep (something), to be sweeping
		cf. ta- 'unspec. ojb.', (u)chpa:na "to sweep"
		cf. uchpa:nwas "broom" 
		CN tlachpana (Sim.) 
		cf. (SD) t-uchpa:na

(C) ta-chteki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		robar
		to steal, to be stealing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', (i)chteki "to steal" 
		cf. (SD) t-ichteki

(SD) ta-ehekua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		probar (comida) 
		to taste, to try (food)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ehekua "to taste"

(C) taha  					tú, usted, vos
		you (sg.)
		ta(h) 'abbreviated form'
		CN tehuatl (Sim.)
(SD) taha

(C) tahkali (t.v.)  				botar
		to throw out, to throw down, to cut down
		tahkali (pres.)
		tahkal (pret.) ni-k-tahkal "I threw it out" 
		tahkal-tuk (perf.)
		xi-k-tahkali "throw it out!"
		cf. ta-  frozen 'unspec. obj.'
		CN cf. icali (Mol.) "pelear,  escaramuzar, batallar"; iʔkali (UC) "pelear contra otro";  			talcali (Sim.)  "derribar  a alguien, rechazar, empujar"
(SD) tahkali (t.v. (?)) 	botar
		to throw out, to throw down, to cut down
		cf. tahkalia

(SD) tahkalia (t.v. (?)) 			botar
		to throw out, to cut down
		tahkalia (pres.)
		tahkalih, tahkaluh (pret.) (?)
		tahkalih-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. tahkali (i.v. (?)) "to throw out"
		cf. ta- frozen 'unspec. obj.'
		CN cf. tlacali (Sim.) "derribar a alguien, rechazar, empujar"

(C) ta-ahke:wa (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		alzar, guardar  (ta:hke:waʔ) 
		to put up, to put away, to be putting away
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ahke:wa "to put away"

(C) tahku  					mitad; entre, en medio; cintura, rabadilla
		half; among, between; waist, rump (note: tahku is a relational noun in its locative 				usages "between, among")
		i-tahku "in between"
		tu-tahku "between us, among us"
		nu-tahku "my waist, my rump"
		cf. tahku me:ts-ti "half moon" 
		CN tlaco (Sim.) "mediano, mitad"
(SD) tahku 	mitad; en medio, entre 
		half; between, among

(C) tahku me:ts-ti  				media luna
		half moon
		cf. tahku "half", me:ts-ti "moon"
	
(C) tahku-yuwal  				medianoche
		midnight
		cf. tahku "half", tayuwal "night"

(C) -tahkwil  					trenza
		braid
		nu-tahkwil "my braid"
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.'; tahkwiltia "to braid"
		CN cf. tla-ʔkwiloli (Car.) "pintura, escritura"; tlacuililtilli (Sim.) "encarecido"
(SD) -tahkwi:l 	listón (cordón para el pelo de la mujer)
		hair ribbon

(C) tahkwiltia (t.v., r.v.)  			trenzar
		to braid
		tahkwiltia (pres.)
		tahkwilith (pret.) mu-tahkwiltih "(she) braided her hair",
		ki-tahkwiltih "(she) braided it"
		tahkwiltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- frozen 'unspec. obj.'; cf. (i)hkwilua "to write"; cf. tahkwil "braid", -tia 'caus.'
		CN cf. tlacuiloa (Sim.) "escribir, pintar"
(SD) tahkwiltia

(C) ta-hkwilua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		escribir
		to write, to be writing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', (i)hkwilua "to write"; cf. tahkwil "braid", tahkwiltia "to braid"
		CN tlacuiloa (Sim.) "escribir, pintar"

(C) -tahpal  					fuerza
		strength
		i-tahpal "his/her/its strength" 
		ka i-tahpal "stong, loud" (recio) 
		CN cf. tlapaltic (Sim.) "firme, recio, robusto, fuerte"

(C) tahpiya (i.v. (?))  				cuidar, vigilar
		to watch, to care for, to look out for/after
		tahpiya (pres.) ni-tahpiya "I'm watching"
		tahpix-ki (pret.)
		tahpix-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', -piya "to have"

(C) ta-hseki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		tostar
		to toast, to be toasting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', (i)hseki "to toast" 
		cf. (SD) ta-i:seki

(C) tahsul  					basura, broza
		garbage, rubbish, brush, leaves
		CN tlaʔsolli (Car.) "basura"
		cf. (SD) ku:pahsul "garbage"

(C) tahsul-á:-t  		Agua-con-basura (nombre de un río cerca de Cuisnahuat)
		name of a river near Cuisnahuat, "Rubbish-River"
		cf. tahsul "rubbish", a:-t "water"

(C) tahta-chiya (t.v.,  unspec.  obj.,  redup.) 	divertirse, mirar mucho a todos lados
		to have fun, to gawk, to look all around
		cf. tahta- ' redup. unspec. obj.' ta-chiya "to be looking, to be waiting"; chiya "to look, 			to wait" 
		CN cf. tlatlachia (Sim.) "ir a ver a menudo"

(C) tahtakal-nah (adj.)  			no parejo, desigual, irregular, nudoso 
		uneven, irregular, knotty
		CN cf. tlatlacalli (Sim.) "derribado, rechazado, empujado" 
(SD) tahta:kal-nah (adj.) 	esparcido, confuso, feo, no parejo, irregular, nudoso
			scattered, confused, ugly, uneven, irregular, knotty

(C) tahtaketsa (i.v., redup.)  			platicar
		to chat, to talk
		cf. taketsa "to talk"
(SD) tahtaketsa

(C) tahtamu:ta (t.v., redup.)  			tirarlos
		to throw, to shoot (things, pl.)
		ni-k-tahtamu:ta "I'm shooting things
		cf. tamu:ta "to shoot"; cf. mu-tahtamu:ta "to go along jumping"

(C) mu-tahtamu:ta (r.v.)  			ir brincando, corriendo
		to go along jumping, running
		cf. mu- 'reflexive, tahtamu:ta "to shoot things"

(C) tahtani (t.v.)  				pedir
		to ask for, to request
		tahtani (pres.) ni-k-tahtani "I ask for it" (niktahtaniʔ) 
		tahtan (pret.)
		tahtan-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tahtanilia "to ask" (preguntar)
		CN tlatlani (Sim.) "preguntar"; PN *tlahtlani
(SD) tahtani

(C) tahtanilia (t.v., applic.)  			preguntar
		to ask, to inquire
		tahtanilia (pres.) ni-k-tahtanilia "I asked her" (niktahtaniliyaʔ)
		tahtanilih (pret.)
		tahtanilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tahtani "to ask for", -(i)lia 'applic.'
		CN cf. tlatlani (Sim.) "preguntar"
(SD) tahtanilia

(C) tahta:sa (t.v., redup.)  			topar, trancar
		to bump into, to touch, to reach
		cf. ta:sa "to bump into, to touch"

(C) tahtats:ni (i.v., redup.)  			pringar, lloviznar 
		to sprinkle (light rain)
		cf. tatsi:ni  "to sprinkle"
		CN cf. tlatlatzini (Sim.) "tronar"

(C) tahtawilia (t.v., r.v.)  			quejar(se) 
		to complain (about)
		tahtawelia (pres.)
		tahtawelih (pret.) mu-tahtawelih "(he) complained", ki-tahtawelih "(he) complained 			about it"
		tahtawelih-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. tlawe:lli (Car.) "indignacion, enojo"; tlauelia (Sim.) "estar irritado contra 				alguien, sentir odio contra el"
(SD) tahtawilia

(Ataco) -tahtay  				abuelo, tío 
		grandfather, uncle

(SD) tahtu:li (n.)  			principal (él que empieza una reunión,  él  que pide la 						novia (de parte del novio), él que tajtulea, él principal 						en una fiesta (tahtu:liʔ)
		the principal person in a ceremony, the one who asks for the bride on behalf of the 			groom, the one who starts meetings
		CN tlatole  (Sim.) "hablador, que usa palabras elevadas"; (cf. CN itoa "decir", tlatoa 			"hablar")

(SD) tah-tsin  					señor  
		sir, lord
		cf. -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN cf. taʔtli (Car.) "padre"

(C) ta-htsuma (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		coser, costurar 
		to sew, to be sewing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', (i)htsuma "to sew"

(C) t-ahwi:lia (t.v., unspec. obj.)		mojar
		to wet, to dampen
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ahwi(:)lia "to wet"

(C) ta-ilpia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		amarrar
		to tie (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ilpia "to tie"

(SD) ta-i:seki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		tostar
		to toast
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', i:seki "tostar"
		cf. (C) ta-hseki

(C) ta-iskalia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		criar
		to grow, to raise, to be raising
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', iskalia "to grow, to raise"
		cf. (SD) t-iskalia

(C) ta-istawia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		salar
		to salt, to be salting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', istawia "to salt"

(C) taixi:ka (i.v.)  				gotear
		to drip
		taixi:ka (pres.) tai:xka "it's dripping" (taixi:gaʔ)
		taixi:ka-k (pret.)
		taixi:ka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', i:x "grain", (w)i:ka "to carry" 
		CN ixica (Sim.) "gotear"

(C) ta-ixka (t.v. unspec. obj.)  		asar
		to roast, to fry (meat)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ixka "to roast, fry (meat)" 
		cf. taixkal "roast(ed), grilled (meat)"
(SD) ta-ixka

(C) taixkal  					asado, cosa asada
		roast, grilled meat
		naka-t taixkal "grilled meat" (carne asada)
		cf. ta-ixka "to roast, to fry (meat)", -l 'passive nominalization'

(C) ta-i:xpa:ka (t.v., unspec. obj., incorp.)	lavar (trastes) 
		to wash (dishes), to be washing (dishes)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', i:x-pa:ka "to wash (dishes)"

(C) ta-i:xpalua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		lamber, lamer
		to lick
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', i:xpalua "to lick"
(C) ta-ka:ki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		escuchar, oir
		to listen, to hear, to be listening
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ka:ki "to hear"

(C) ta:kaktua (i.v.)  				callarse
		to be quiet, silent, to shut up
		ta:kaktua (pres.) ni-ta:kaktua "I'm being quiet" (nita:gaktuwaʔ)
		ta:kak, ta:kaktuh (pret.) (?)
		ta:kaktuk (perf.) (?)
		xi-ta:kaktu "shut up!", "be quiet!" (chita:gaktuʔ)
		CN cf. tla:kakko  (Car.) "con paz";  cf. (?) tlacactli (Sim.) "oido"
(SD) ta:kaktua
		ta:kaktuh (pret.)
		ta:kaktuk (perf.)

(C) ta:kamati (t.v.)  				obedecer
		to obey, to mind
		ta:kamati (pres.) ni-k-ta:kamati "I obey him/her/it" (nikta:gamatiʔ)
		ta:kamat-ki (pret.)
		ta:kamat-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta:ka-t "man", mati "to know"
		CN tlacamati (Sim.)
(SD) ta:kamati
		ni-mits-ta:kamati "I obey you"

(C) ta:kapala  					vago, hombre haragan (ta:gapalaʔ)
		bum, vagrant, lazy man
		cf. ta:ka-t "man", pala "old, rotten"
		cf. siwa:pala "prostitute"

(C) ta-kapaxua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		aflojar
		to loosen, to untie, to be loosening
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kapaxua "to loosen"

(C) ta:ka-t  					hombre
		man
		-ta:ka-w (poss.)  nu-ta:ka-w "my man"
		tahta:kamet (pl.) 
		cf. ta:kapala "bum, lazy man"
		CN tla:katl (Car.); PN *tla:ka-
(SD) ta:ka-t
		tahta:kamet, ta:kamet (pl.) 
(C) ta-kaxa:nia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		aflojar 
		to loosen, to undo, to be undoing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kaxa:nia "to loosen"

(SD) ta-ka:xawa (t.v.,  unspec. obj.)  		vaciar poco a poco, rebajar, mermar
		to take out some, to empty little by little, to reduce
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ka:xawa "to empty little by little"

(C) -ta:kayu  					enjambre
		swarm
		i-ta:kayu "its swarm"
		cf. (?) ta:ka-t "man", -yu ('abstraction') 
		CN cf. (?) tlacayo (Sim.) "habitado"

(SD) ta-kekchiwa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  	componer 
		to fix, to put together
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kekchiwa "to fix"

(SD) ta-ke:luna (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		quebrar
		to break (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ke:luna "to break"

(C) take:n  					cobija, sábana (tage:ŋ)
		blanket, sheet, covers
		-take:n (poss.)   nu-take:n "my blanket"
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kwe:n-yu "blanket", kwe:ntia "to cover (with blanket)", ta-ke:ntia 			"to cover (with blanket)"
		CN cf. tlaquemitl (Sim.), tlaquentli  (Sim.) "vestimenta, ropa"

(C) take:ntia (t.v.)  				cobijar, acobijar
		to cover, to put blankets on
		take:ntia (pres.) ni-k-take:ntia "I cover him/her up" (niktage:ntiyaʔ)
		take:ntih (pret.)
		take:ntih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. take:n "blanket", -tia 'caus.'; kwe:ntia "to cover" 
		CN tlaquentia (Mol.) "vestir a otro"
		cf. (SD) take:ntia "to dress a corpse"

(SD) take:ntia (t.v.)  				vestir al muerto
		to dress/prepare a corpse
		take:ntia (pres.) 
		take:ntih (pret.) ni-k-take:ntih "I dressed him (the corpse)"
		take:ntih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. take:n "blanket", -tia 'caus.'
		CN tlaquentia (Mol.) "vestir a otro"
		cf. (C) take:ntia "to cover (with a blanket)"

(C) taketsa (i.v.)  				hablar
		to speak, to talk
		taketsa (pres.) ni-taketsa "I'm talking" (nitagetsaʔ)
		takets-ki (pret.)
		takets-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', ketsa "to lift, to stand"
		CN cf. tlaquetzalli (Mol.) "fabula, cuento", tlaquetza (Sim.)" contar fabulas"
(SD) taketsa

(C) taketsal  					horcón (poste de casa) (tagetsal)
		forked house-pole
		tahtaketsal (pl.) 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ketsa "to stand, to raise", -l 'passive nominalization'
		CN tlaquetzalli (Sim.) "columna, pilar, cuadrado de madera"
(SD) taketsal

(C) ta:ke:wa (t.v.)  				acomodar, dar trabajo, hacer casa
		to accommodate, to provide work for, to give housing 
		ta:ke:wa (pres.) ki-ta:ke:wa "(he) accommodates him", 
		ni-k-ta:ke:wa "I give him housing" (nikta:ge:waʔ)
		ta:ke:h-ki (pret.)
		ta:ke:h-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. tlaqueua (Sim.) "alquilar"
(SD) take:wa
		take:w-ki (pret.)
		take:w-tuk (perf.)

(C) -ta:kil   					la fruta, la cosecha de una fruta
		fruit, the harvest/picking of some fruit
		i-ta:kil "its fruit"  [ita:gil]
		CN cf. (?) tlaquilli (Mol.) "encalado, brunido" 
		(SD) -ta:kil  cosecha
		harvest, yield

(C) takimiltia (t.v.)  				cargar, alzar, ayudar a poner carga
		to load up, to help to load
		takimiltia (pres.)  ki-takimiltia "(she) loads him" (gitagaimiltiyaʔ)
		takimiltih (pret.)
		takimiltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- frozen 'unspec. obj.', kimil "load", -tia 'caus.'
(SD) takimiltia

(C) takimilua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		envolver, encobijar
		to wrap, to cover
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kimilua "to wrap, cover"
(SD) takimilua

(C) takipi:ni (i.v.)  				relampaguear
		for lightning to flash, to lightning
		takipi:ni (pres.)
		takipi:ni-k (pret.)
		takipi:n-tuk (perf.)
(SD) takipi:ni

(C) ta-ki:xtia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		sacar
		to take out, to get out, to remove, to be taking out
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ki:xtia "to take out"

(SD) -takon-yu  				tacón
		heel
		Sp. tacón, -yu 'intimate poss.' (?)

(C) taksa (i.v.)  				patear
		to kick
		taksa (pres.)  ni-taksa "I'm kicking" (nitaksaʔ)
		taksa-k (pret.)
		taksa-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ni-taksa-k (i-)ihpak "I kicked him/her" (literally "I kick on him/her")
		cf. ta- (frozen (?)) 'unspec. obj.', (i)kx(i) "foot", -a 'transitive'
(SD) taksa

(C) taku:kal   					cacaxte, cacaste (caja de madera para cargar 								cosas) (taku:gał)
		wooden carrying crate
		cf. (SD) kakax

(C) takulia, ta:ku:lia (t.v.) 			regalar
		to give (a gift), to present takulia (pres.)
		takulih (pret.) ni-k-takulih "I gave it (to him/her)" 
		takulih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tatakulia "to give (something)"
(SD) takulia

(SD) ta-ku:lulua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		enrollar
		to roll up, to wrap up)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ku:lulua "to roll up"

(C) taku:mi (n.) 				oscuridad (de nubes, de noche) (taku:miʔ) 			darkness (of clouds, night)
		taku:mi yawi "it's getting dark" (yawi "to go")
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ku:mi-t "pot"
		cf. taku:miya "to get dark"

(C) taku:miya (i.v.)  				oscurecerse
		to get dark, to become dark, to darken
		taku:miya (pres.)
		taku:miya-k (pret.)
		taku:miya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. taku:mi "dark", -ya 'inchoative'
		cf. (SD) takunyuwa

(C) ta-ku:mu:nia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		alborotar
		to mess up, to get/put in disorder, to agitate, to excite 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ku:mu:nia "to mess up, to excite"

(SD) takunyuwa (i.v.)  			estar oscuro
		to be dark
		takunyuwa (pres.)
		takunyuwa-k (pret.) takunyuwa-k-a "it's dark already" (ya entro la noche) 					(tagunyuwagaʔ)
		takunyuwa-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ku:mi-tl "pot", tayuwa "night", yuwaki "dark"
		cf. (C) taku:miya "to get dark"

(C) ta-ku:pachua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		apachar (oprimir)
		to hold down, to press down, to flatten
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', (?) ku:- 'head', pachua "to hold down"

(SD) ta-kupilua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		colgar
		to hang, to be hanging (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kupilua "to hang"

(C) ta-kupi:na (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		arrancar
		to pull out, to tear out
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kupi:na "to pull out"

(C) ta-ku:suwa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		ensartar
		to string, to thread, to bead, to be stringing 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ku:suwa "to string"
(SD) ta-ku:suwa

(C) takutun  					pedazo (takutuŋ)
		piece
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kutu:na "to cut"
		CN tlacotontli (Sim.) "cortado, pedazo" 
(SD) takutun (tagutuŋ)

(C) ta-kuwa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  to buy
		to buy, to be buying
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kuwa "to buy" 
(SD) ta-kuwa

(C) ta-kuyuna (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		abrir hoyo, hacer hoyo 
		to make a hole, to open a hole
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kuyunia "to open a hole"
		cf. (SD) kuyuna "to open a hole"
(SD) ta-kuyuna

(C) ta-kwa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		comer
		to eat, to be eating, to eat (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kwa "to eat"
		cf. takwal "food"; takwaltia "to feed"
(SD) ta-kwa

(SD) takwak-a:-t  				lloviznna algo recio
		shower (somewhat strong), heavy sprinkle (rain) 
		cf. takw(a:w)ak "hard", a:-t "water"

(C) takwak-nah  				algo duro (no muy duro) 
		somewhat harad, hardish
		cf. takw(a:w)ak "hard", -nah 'adj.'

(C) takwal  					comida
		food
		-takwal (poss.) nu-takwal "my food"
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kwa "to eat", -l 'passive nominalization'
		CN tlaqualli (Sim.) "todo lo que se come, vianda, plato"
(SD) takwal

(C) takwaltia (t.v)  				mantener, dar comida
		to maintain, to sustain, to give food to, to feed
		takwaltia (pres.) ni-k-takwaltia "I feed him" (nitakwaltiyaʔ) 
		takwaltih (pret.)
		takwaltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-kwa "to eat" -(l)tia 'caus.' ; cf. takwal "food"
(SD) takwaltia

(C) takwatsin  					tacuazín (tlacuache)
		opossum
		-takwatsin (poss.) 
		tahtakwatsin (pl.) 
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', kwa "to eat", -tsin 'diminutive' 
		CN tlaquatzin (Sim.)
(SD) takwatsin

(SD) takwatsin kwawi-t  			palo de tacuazín, huele-de-noche (árbol) 
		tree sp., "opossum tree"
		cf. takwatsin "opossum", kwawi-t "tree"

(C) takwa:wa-k  				duro, macizo
		hard, solid
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.'
		cf. takwak-nah "somewhat hard", takwa:waya "to become hard"; cf. takwak-a:-t "hard 			shower"

(C) takwa:waya (i.v.)  			endurarse, endurecerse
		to harden, to become hard
		takwa:waya (pres.)
		takwa:waya-k (pret.)
		takwa:waya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. takwa:wa-k "hard", -ya 'inchoative'
		CN tlakwa:ya (Car.) "endurecer"; tlaquaua (Sim.) "enderecerse, hacer duro"
(SD) takwa:waya

(C) ta-kwe:chua (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		repasar maíz, refinar (masa) (moler fino)
		to grind very fine, to be grinding very fine
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kwe:chua "repasar, refinar"
(SD) ta-kwe:chua

(SD) ta-kwe:lpachua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  	doblar
		to bend, to fold
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', kwe:lpachua "to fold"

(C) takwi (t.v., r.v.)  				tomar prestado, prestar(se)
		to borrow, to take on credit
		takwi (pres.)
		takwih (pret.) ni-k-takwih "I loaned it (on credit)",  
		mu-takwih "it was borrowed (on credit)"
		cf. (?) ta- frozen 'unspec. obj.', kwi "to grab, to take"
		cf. takwiltia "to loan"
		CN mo-tlacuia (Mol.) "tomar algo prestado"
(SD) mu-takwi (r.v.)  				fiarse
		to borrow, to take on credit

(C) takwi:ka (t.v., i.v.)  			cantar
		to sing
		takwi:ka (pres.)
		takwi:ka-k (pret.)
		takwi:ka-tuk (perf.) ni-k-takwi:ka-tuk "I have sung it" (niktakwi:gatuk)
		cf. ta- frozen 'unspec. obj.'
		cf. takwi:kalwia "to sing something for someone"; takwi:kani "singer"
		CN kwi:ka (Car.) "to sing"; PN *kwi:ka
(SD) takwi:ka (t.v., i.v.) 	cantar, gorjear
		to sing, to warble (of birds)
		cf. takwi:kalia "to sing somethng to someone"

(SD) takwi:kalia (t.v., applic.) 		cantarle (algo para alguien), arrullarlo
		to sing something for someone, to sing to, to lull, to sing a lullaby to
		takwi:kalia (pres.)
		takwi:kalih (pret.)
		takwi:kalih-tuk (perf.) ni-k-takwi:kalih-tuk "I have sung it to her"
		cf. takwi:ka "to sing", -lia 'applic.'
		cf. (C) takwi:kalwia 

(C) takwi:kalwia (t.v., applic.)  		cantarle (algo para alguien)
		to sing something for someone, to sing to
		takwi:kalwia (pres.)
		takwi:kalwih (pret.)
		takwi:kalwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. takwi:ka "to sing", -lwia (?) 'applic./passive/caus.' 
		cf. (SD) takwi:kalia

(C) takwi:kani  				cantador (cantante) (takwi:ganiʔ)
		singer
		cf. takwi:ka "to sing", -ni 'agent'
(SD) takwi:kani

(C) takwiltia (t.v.)  				prestar, fiar
		to loan, to loan on credit
		takwiltia (pres.)
		takwiltih (pret.) ni-k-takwiltih "I loaned it (to him on credit)"  
		takwiltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. takwi "to borrow (on credit)", -ltia 'caus./applic.' (?) 
		CN cf. tlacuiltia (Sim.) "prestar una cosa a alguien sin que tenga necesidad de 				devolverla de la misma especie" 
(SD) takwiltia 		fiar, darle fiado
		to loan (something to someone) (on credit)

(C) ta:l  					tierra, suelo, terreno
		land, ground, earth, dirt
		-ta:l (poss.)  nu-ta:l "my land"
		cf. -ta(:)l 'place of'
		CN tla:lli (Car.) "tierra"; PN *tla:l(SD) ta:l

(C) ta:l-ahwi  					húmedo (de tierra, ropa)
		damp (of ground, clothes) 
		cf. also ta:l-ahwi-tuk 
		cf. ta:l "ground", ahwi "to wet"
		CN cf. (?) tlalauiac "tierra abonada, fértil"

(C) ta:l-ahwi-tuk  				húmedo (de tierra, ropa)
		damp (of ground, clothes)
		cf. ta:l-ahwi "damp"

(SD) ta:la:lak-tsin, talalak-tsin 		talalaise (pescado)
		fish sp., small, ball-shaped
		cf. (?) ta:l "earth", al(a:w)ak "smooth", -tsin 'diminutive' 
		CN cf. (?) tlalalacatl (Sim.) "ganso, pato silvestre"
		cf. (?) (C) ku:talalahtsin "water lizard"

(C) ta:la:pu:ni  			chagüite, charco, ojo de agua, pantano, vertiente de agua
		spring, puddle, marsh
		cf. ta:l  "ground", a:-t "water", pu:ni "to be born" (cf. pu:ni a:-t "spring")

(C) ta:la:puts  					dragón, talapo (pájaro)
		bird sp., motmot (?), blue with long tail, big feet, makes holes in the ground
		ta:l "earth", a:-t "water", -puts ('hump', 'back')

(C) ta:la:wa-k  				liso
		smooth
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ala:wak "smooth"

(C) ta:lchi  					en el suelo
		on the ground
		cf. ta:l "ground"
		CN tlalchi (Mol.) "en el suelo"
(SD) ta:lchi

(C) ta:lchinul  					talchinol (casa de comején)
		termite's nest
		cf. ta:l "earth"
		CN cf. (?) tlalchinoltototl (Sim.) "pájaro del tamaño del gorrión", tlalchinolxochitl 			(Sim.) "hierba medicinal"

(SD) ta:lepa-t  					talepate (insecto que chupa sangre)
		a blood-sucking insect, small, round, with a long sharp beak 
		cf. (?) ta:l "ground"
		CN cf. (?) epatl (Sim.) "zorrillo"

(C) ta:lia (t.v.)  				poner, asentar, llevar (ropa)
		to place, to put, to wear (clothes), to set down
		ta:lia (pres.)
		ta:lih (pret.)  ni-k-ta:lih "I set it down"
		ta:lih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ta:l "ground"
		cf. mu-ta:lia "to sit (down)", se:nta:lia "to place together" 
		CN tla:lia (Car.) "sentar, poner"; PN *tla:lia
(SD) ta:lia

(C) mu-ta:lia (r.v.)  				sentarse
		to sit down
		cf. mu- 'reflexive', ta:lia "to put, to place, to set down" 
		CN mo-tlalia (Sim.) "sentarse, colocarse"
(SD) mu-ta:lia

(C) ta:lichkwa (i.v.)  				escarbar
		to dig
		ta:lichkwa (pres.) ni-ta:lichkwa ni-nemi "I'm digging"
		ta:lichkwa-k (pret.)
		ta:lichkwa-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. (?) ta:l "earth", (?) -kwa "to eat"
		CN cf. tlalichtic (Sim.) "duro, no cocido, no hecho"

(C) ta:l-i:xkupi:ni (i.v., incorp.)  		derrumbarse
		(for land) to slide, (for land) to tumble down
		ta:li:xkupi:ni (pres.)
		ta:li:xkupi:ni-k (pret.)
		ta:li:xkupi:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta:l "earth", i:x 'face', "eye", kupi:ni "to tear out" 
		cf. ta:li:xkupi:ntuk (n.) "landslide"

(C) ta:li:xkupi:n-tuk (n.)  			derrumbe
		landslide
		cf. ta:li:xkupi:ni  "to slide (of land)", -tuk 'perf.'

(C) ta:lkakawa-t  				tierra-cacao, tarcacaguate (cacahuate ?)
		peanut (?)
		cf. ta:l "tierra", kakawa-t "cacao"
		CN tlalcacauatl (Sim.) "cacahuate"
(SD) ta:lkakawa-t

(C) ta(:)lketsal  				talquezal (un zacate)
		grass sp.
		cf. ta:l "ground, earth, dirt", ketsa "to raise, stand", -l 'passive nominalizaation'
		CN tlalquetzalli (Sim.) "planta medicinal cuyas hojas están agrupadas en forma de 			penacho, es un remedio contra la tos y indigestión"

(C) ta:lkune:-t  				talconete (animalito que canta cuando va a 								llover, suena como la voz del chivo)
		an insect (?) that sings when it is going to rain, sounds like a goat
		cf. ta:l "ground", kune:-t "child"

(C) ta:lmats-nah  				sucio (de tierra en la ropa)
		dirty, soiled (clothes)
		cf. ta:l "earth, dirt"

(C) ta:l-nex  					tierra caliente (se siente caliente en los pies al 
							andar alguien)
		hot ground (that feels hot on the feet when one walks on it) 
		cf. ta:l "ground", nex-ti "ashes"
(SD) ta:lnex

(C) ta:l-pachua (t.v., incorp.)  		echarle tierra
		to throw dirt on, to put in the dirt
		ta:lpachua (pres.)
		ta:lpachuh (pret.)
		ta:lpachuh-tuk (perf.)
		ta:l "tierra", pachua "to hold down, to press, to flatten"
		CN cf. tlalpachoa (Sim.) "cubrir de tierra, poner una cosa en la tierra"

(SD) ta:lpachua  				enterrar
		to bury
		ki-ta:lpachuh-ke-t "they buried him"

(SD) ta:lpupah   				talpupa (hongo de palo podrido, se come)
		mushroom sp., mushroom from rotten tree, edible
		cf. ta:l "ground"

(C) ta:lputs  					montecitos que sacan las taltusas, zompopos
		molehill, anthill
		cf. ta:l "ground, dirt", pu(:)tsua "to pile"
(SD) ta(:)lpu(:)ts

(SD) ta:lpu:xak 			talpuja (cascajo, mezcla de tierra y cascajo, piedra)
		gravel, rocks and dirt mixed
		cf. ta:l "ground, dirt", (?) pux(a:w)ak "wrinkled; black (fungused (?)) corn"
		cf. (C) ta:ltepu:xak

(C) ta:ltepu:xak  				talpuja (cascajo)
		gravel
		cf. ta:l "ground, dirt", tepu:xak "gravel"

(C) ta:ltexkan  			talaje, cuerudo (insecto que chupa sangre, cascara dura)
		a large blood-sucking insect with a hard shell
		tahta:ltexkan (pl.) 
		cf. ta:l "ground", texkan "tick"

(C) ta:ltuma-kwawi-t  			palo de cereza (en la montaña) (cerezo)
		tree sp., wild cherry tree (?)
		ta:l "ground, earth, dirt", tuma-t "tomato", kwawi-t "tree"

(C) ta:ltu:san   				taltusa, tusa
		gopher (pocket gopher) 
		tahta:ltu:san (pl.) 
		cf. ta:l "ground, dirt" 
		CN cf. tocan (Sim.) "especie de topo"
(SD) ta:ltu:san

(C) mu-talua (r.v.)  			correr (de gente, animales, agua) 
		to run, to flow
		mu-talua (pres.)
		mu-taluh (pret.)
		mu-taluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. talultia "to chase"
		CN tlaloa (Car.) "to run"; PN *tlalowa
(SD) mu-talua
		xi-mu-talu "run!"
		mu-talua (i-)ipan "to chase someone/something" (literally "to run after/behind 				him/her/it")  

(C) ta:lu:li:n  				temblor 
		earthquake
		cf. ta:luli:ni "for the earth to quake"
(SD) ta:lu:lin

(C) ta:luli:ni  				temblar (la tierra)
		for the earth to shake/quake
		cf. ta:l "earth", uli:ni "to move"; cf. ta:lu:li:n "earthquake"
		CN tlalolini (Sim.) "temblar (tierra)"

(C) talultia (t.v.)  			correr(lo)
		to chase
		talultia (pres.)
		talultih (pret.) ni-k-talultih "I chased it"
		talultih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. talua "to run", -(l)tia 'caus.'
		CN tlaloltia (Sim.)
		cf. (SD) mu-talua (i-)ipan "to chase"

(SD) talumet  					pedazos de güixte (pedazos de vidrio roto) 			pieces of broken glass
		cf. Sp. (?) limeta

(C) ta:l-u:mi-t  				un gusano que alumbra en la noche 
		glowworm (a worm that glows at night) 
		tahta:lu:mit (pl.) 
		cf. ta:l "earth", u:mi-t "bone"
		CN tlalomitl (Sim.) "gusanillo, blanquecino y brillante, es duro y siempre recto, de 			ahi su nombre 'hueso de la tierra'"

(C) ta:lkwaktsin   				piojillo
		chicken louse
		cf. (?) ta:l "ground", wa:ki "dry", -tsin 'diminutive'

(SD) ta:lxina:ch  				comején
		termite
		cf. ta:l "ground", xina:ch "womb"
		cf. (C) ta:lxinech

(C) ta:lxinech   				comején
		termite
		tahta:lxinech (pl.)
		cf. ta:l "ground"
		cf. (SD) ta:lxinach

(C) tamachiwa (t.v.) 				medir, pesar 
		to measure, to weigh 
		tamachiwa (pres.) ni-k-tamachiwa "I'm measuring it" 
		tamachih-ki (pret.)
		tamachih-tuk (perf.)
		CN tamachiua (Sim.) "medir, pesar algo"
(SD) tamachiwa
		tamachiw(-ki) (pret.)
		tamachiw-tuk (perf.)

(C) ta-mahma:tu:ka (t.v., unspec. obj.)    	caminar a tientas (sin ver)
		to feel one's way along (without seeing)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', maham:-tu:ka "to go by feeling one's way"; cf. ma:tu:ka "to 				touch, to feel"
	
(SD) ta-maka (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		dar, castigar
		to give (something), to punish
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', maka "to give"
	
(C) tamakas   					 tamagás (culebra) (tamagas)
		snake sp., said to throw "milk" and to be poisonous
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', maka "to give" -s 'nominalization' 
		CN cf. (?) tlamacazqui (Sim.) "sacerdote, ministro" 
(SD) tamakas    tamagás, tamagaste (clase de culebra, clase de avispa)
		snake sp.; wasp sp.
	
(C) tamal  					tortilla
		tortilla
		-tamal (poss.)   nu-tamal "my tortilla"
		tahtamal (pl.) 
		CN cf. tamalli (sim.) "tamal"
(SD) tamal

(C) ta-mali:na (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		torcer pita, hacer pita
		to twist string, to make string
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', mali:na "to make string"

(SD) tamal-kwa:ch,  tamal-kwa:ch-ti  	mantel, servilleta (tela para tortillas
		napkin, cloth for wrapping tortillas
		cf. tamal "tortilla", kwa:ch-ti "napkin, cloth, rag"
	
(C) ta-mana (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		cocinar, cocer
		to cook, to be cooking
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', mana "to cook"
		cf. tamanti "cooked, something cooked" 
(SD) ta-mana
(C) tamanti  					cocido
		cooked, done; something cooked
		cf. ta-mana "to cook", -ti ('nominalizer') 
(SD) tamanti

(C) tamati (i.v.)  				imaginar(se), adivinar
		to imagine, to guess
		tamati (pres.) ni-mati "I imagine" 
		tamat-ki (pret.)
		tamat-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', mati "to know"

(C) tamaya  					adíos (contestación al saludo de otro)  [tamaya?] 		goodbye, answer to someone's previous "goodbye" greeting) 
		cf. ti(y)an-a "goodbye" (said by the first to leave)

(C) tameh  el filo
		blade, sharp edge
		-tan (poss.)  i-tan "its blade"
		cf. -tan "tooth"
		cf. (SD) -tan

(C) ta-me:wa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		desherbar, desyerbar 
		to weed, to tear out plants, to be weeding
		ta- 'unspec. obj.', me:wa "to weed" 
(SD) ta-me:wa

(C) tami (adv.)  				después
		then, afterwards
		cf. tami "to end"
		wan tami "and then, later, afterwards" 
		CN tlan(i) (Sim.) "después"

(C) tami (i.v.)  				acabarse, terminarse
		to end, to run out, to terminate
		tami (pres.)
		tami-k (pret.)
		tan-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tamia (t.v.) "to end, finish"
		CN tlami (Car.) "acabar"; PN *tlami
(SD) tami
		tan-ki (pret.) tan-ke-t "they ran out"

(C) tamia (t.v.)  				acabar, terminar
		to finish, to end, to use up
		tamia (pres.) ni-k-tamia "I finished it" (niktamiyaʔ) 
		tamih (pret.)
		tamih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tami (i.v.) "to end, to run out"
		CN tlamia (Sim.) "acabar, consumir" 
(SD) tamia

(C) tami:ma (t.v.)  				botar, dejar caer
		to drop, to throw down
		tami:ma (pres.) ni-k-tami:ma "I throw it down"
		tami:n (pret.)
		tami:n-tuk (perf.) 
		cf. (?) ta- frozen 'unspec. obj.', mi:ma "to throw"

(C) tamu:ta (t.v.)  				tirar (honda, flecha, escopeta)
		to shoot (sling, arrow, shotgun, etc.), to throw 
		tamu:ta (pres.)
		tamu:ta-k (pret.) ni-k-tamu:ta-k "I shot it"
		tamu:ta-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tahtamu:ta "to shoot them"
		cf. ta- frozen 'unspec. obj.', mu:ta "to throw"
		CN cf. mo:tla (Car.) "tirar con piedra"
		cf. (SD) mu:ta "to throw at"

(SD) ta-mu:ta (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		tirar, aventar
		to throw, to be throwing (things)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', mu:ta "to throw at" 
		cf. (C) tamu:ta

(C) -tan  					diente
		tooth
		nu-tan "my tooth"
		nuhnu-tan (poss. pl.) "my teeth" i-tahtan, ihi-tan "his/her/its teeth" 
		cf. tameh "blade,  edge"; cf. tankuch "eyetooth"; tantia "to sharpen"
		CN tlantli (Car.)
(SD) -tan 	tooth; blade, sharp edge, sharp tongue
		cf. -tankwich "wisdom tooth"
		cf. (C) tameh "blade, sharp edge"

(C, SD) -tan  					'lugar de (entre, junto a, en, debajo de (sufijo))' 		'place of (among, next to, in, below (suffix))'
		cf. -tan "below"
		CN -tlan (Sim.)

(C) -tan  				abajo de, debajo de, bajo de (sustantivo relacional) 			below, under, beneath, underneath (relational noun) 
		i-tan "under him/her/it"
		i-tan ne a:ma-t "under the amate tree"
		cf. i-tan-kupa "below"
		CN tlan(i) (Car.) "debajo"

(C) -ta:nah  					tanate, maleta
		traveling bag, bundle, pack
		i-ta:nah "his pack" tahta:nah (pl.) 
		CN tanatli (Sim.) "capazo hecho de palma"
(SD) -ta:nah

(C) ta-namaka (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		vender
		to sell, to be selling
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', namaka "to sell"
		cf. tanamakani "seller, vender"
(SD) ta-namaka

(C) tanamakani comerciante, vendedor  (tanamaganiʔ) 
		seller, vender
		tahtanamakani (pl.) 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', namaka "to sell", -ni 'agent'

(C) ta-na:palua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		abrazar
		to embrace, to hug, to be hugging
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', na:plua "to embrace, to hug" 
(SD) ta-napalua 	abrazar, chinear
		to embrace, to hold, to cuddle, to hug, to be holding, hugging

(C) ta-nawatia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		aconsejar
		to advise
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', nawatia "to advise"
(SD) ta-nawatia

(C) tanchayka  			nombre de una cueva, una montana (tanchaygaʔ)
		name of a cave, of a mountain (?)

(C) ta-ne:lua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		menear
		to stir, to be stirring
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ne:lua "to stir"

(C) tane:si (i.v.)  				aclararse el día (amanecer)
		to dawn
		tane:si (pres.)
		tane:si-k (pret.)
		tane:s-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', ne:si "to appear, to be seen"
		CN tlaneci (Sim.) "ser de día, aparecer el día, el alba se muestra"
(SD) tane:si 	amanecer
		to dawn

(C) tane:skan 					claridad (aurora (?))
		clearness, dawn (?)
		cf. tane:si "to dawn", -kan ('place of' (derived from verbs))

(C) tane:wi (t.v.)  				tomar prestado
		to borrow
		tane:wi (pres.) ni-k-tane:wi "I'm borrowing it" (niktane:wiʔ)
		tane:h (pret.)
		tane:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tane:wiltia "to lend"
		CN tlaneuia (Sim.) "tomar una cosa en préstamo"; tlane:wia (UC)

(C) tane:wiltia (t.v.)  				prestar
		to lend, to loan
		tane:wiltia (pres.) ni-mits-tane:wiltia "I loan (it) to you" 
		tane:wiltih (pret.)
		tane:wiltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tane:wi "to borrow", -ltia 'caus./applic.' (?)

(C) tanex-nah (adj.)  				oscuro de nubes (nublado y oscuro)
		overcast, dark (from clouds)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', nex-nah 'dirty, dusty'

(C) tankuch  					colmillo
		eyetooth, canine tooth
		-tankuch (poss.) cf. -tan "tooth" 
		CN tlancochtli (Sim.) "molar"
		cf. (SD) -tankwich "wisdom tooth"

(C) -tan-kupa  					abajo de
		under, below
		i-tan-kupa "below him/her/it" cf. -tan "under, below"
		CN cf. (?) -co-pa (Sim.) "movimiento 'de, por, hacia'"

(C) tankwa (t.v.)  				morder
		to bite
		tankwa (pres.)
		tankwah (pret.) ki-tankwah "he bit him" (gitankwah)
		tankwah-tuk (perf.)
		cf. -tan "tooth", kwa "to eat"
		CN tlanqua (Sim.) "morder"
(SD) tankwa
		ni-k-tankwa "I bite it" (niktangwaʔ)
		cf. ta-tankwa "to be biting (something)"

(C) mu-tankwaketsa (r.v.) 			arrodillarse
		to kneel
		mu-tankwaketsa (pres.)
		mu-tankwakets-ki (pret.) ni-mu-tankwakets-ki "I kneeled" 							(nimutaŋkwagetskiʔ)
		mu-tankwakets-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tankwa- ('knee'), ketsa "to stand"
		CN tlanquaquetza (Sim.) "ponerse arrodillado" (cf. tlanquaitl "rodilla")
(SD) mu-tankwaketsa

(SD) -tankwich  				muela cordial (cordal)
		wisdom tooth
	nu-tankwich  "my wisdom tooth"  (nutaŋgwich)
		CN tlancochtli (Sim.) "molar"
		cf. (C) tankuch "eyetooth"

(SD) -tan-naka-yu  				encía
		gums
	i-tannakayu "his/her gums"  (itaŋnakayuʔ)
		nu-tannakayu "my gums"
		cf. -tan "tooth", naka-t "flesh", -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) tantia (t.v.)  				afilar
		to sharpen
		tantia (pres.) ni-k-tantia "I'm sharpening it" (niktantiyaʔ) 
		tantih (pret.)
		tantih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. -tan "tooth", -tia 'caus.'
		CN tlantia (Sim.) "hacer los dientes a una sierra"
(SD) tantia
		cf. ta-tantia "to be sharpening"

(C) tapach  					concha (blanca, del mar)
		white sea shell
		CN tapachtli (Sim.) "coral, concha, escama de pescado"

(C) ta-pachua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  apachar (oprimir)
		to hold down, to be holding down
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pachua "to hold down"

(SD) tapada(h)  				presa
		dam
		Sp. tapada

(C) -tapahsul  					nido (de pájaro)
		bird's nest
		i-tapahsul "its nest"
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', mu-pahsulua "for one's hair to be messed up", ku:pahsul 				"rubbish"

(C) tapahtiya, tapahtiyani  			médico, doctor, curandero, enfermero 
		doctor, curer, nurse
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pahtia "to cure", -ni 'agent'
		CN tapatiani (Sim.) "restaurador"

(C) ta-pa:ka (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		lavar
		to wash
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pa:ka "to wash"

(C) tapa:kani  					lavandera
		washer(woman)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pa:ka "to wash", -ni 'agent'

(C) tapak-ti (n.)  				el lavado, ropa lavada
		the wash
		-tapak (poss.)  i-tapak "her wash"
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pa:ka "to wash"
		CN tlapactli (Sim.) "lavado"
(SD) tapak-ti

(C) tapa:na (t.v.)  				reventar
		to break open, to explode
		tapa:na (pres.)
		tapa:n (pret.)
		tapa:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tapa:ni (i.v.) "to burst"
		CN tlapana (Sim.) "romper,  pelar,  desgarrar"; tlapa:na (UC) "quebrar algo"
(SD) tapa:na 	reventar; arar
		to break open, to explode; to plow
		tapa:n(-ki) (pret.)
		ni-k-tapa:na ne ta:l "I plow the ground"
		cf. ta-tapa:na "to break (something) open"

(C) tapa:ni (i.v.) 				reventarse
		to burst, to explode, to break open
		tapa:ni (pres.)
		tapa:ni-k (pret.)
		tapa:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tapa:na (t.v.) "to break open"
		CN tlapa:ni (Car.) "quebrarse, romperse"

(C) ta-patilia (t.v., applic.) 			cambiar, intercambiar, cambiarselo 
		to change, to exchange, to trade, to change for someone 
		tapatilia (pres.)
		tapatilih (pret.)
		tapatilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pata "to change", -(i)lia 'applic.' 
		CN patilia (Sim.) "trocar"; patilia (UC) "enmendar, reformar"
(SD) ta-patilia

(C) mu-tapatia (r.v.)  				vestirse, cambiarse
		to dress, to change
		mu-tapatia (pres.)
		mu-tapatih (pret.)
		mu-tapatih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pata "to change", -tia 'caus.'
		CN cf. (tla)patia (Sim.) "arreglar, reparar"

(C) ta-patka:wia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		resembrar
		to replant, to be replanting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', patka:wia "to replant"

(C) tapa:wil  		"nido" (el bolado o el huevo que se pone a la gallina para que ponga)
		"nest egg" (the egg or egg-shaped ball put in the nest so the chicken will lay)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.'
		CN cf. pauilia (Sim.) "cebar, atraer mediante reclamos a los peces, pájaros", tlapauil-			maniliztli (Sim.) "cebo para atraer la caza"
	cf. (SD) -pa:wil

(C) ta-paya:na (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		quebrar nixtamal, quebrar maíz (hacer masa, la 							primera pasada de moler)
		to be grinding corn in the first pass, to be breaking corn
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', paya:na "to grind in the first pass" 
(SD) ta-paya:na

(C) tapa:yawi-t  				temporal, aguacero
		storm, heavy rain
		cf. tapa:ni "to burst"
		CN cf. tlapayaui (Sim.) "llover a cantaros"
(SD) tapayawi-t

(C)  tapech   					tapesco (cama, puerta, tapesco, cosa como 								marco o cuadro cubierto de varas)
		a frame woven or covered with rods or canes, used as a bed, door, attic, etc.)
		-tapech (poss.) nu-tapech "my frame/bed"
		cf. (?) pechih "mattress"
		CN tlapechtli (Car.) "cama, andas"; PN *tlapəch- "bed, frame" 
(SD) tapech

(SD) ta-pelua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		abrir
		to open (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pelua "to open"

(C) tapepechu:l  				pared
		wall
		CN cf. tlapepecholli (Sim.) "tapado, cerrado hermeticamente" 
(SD) tapepechul	pared (de paja, lodo, varas), bajareque
		wall, wattle and dob wall

(C) tapetasuwal  				penascal (inclinación con mucha piedra)
		rocky slope
		cf. tapeta-t "cliff", suwa "to spread", -l 'passive nominalization' 

(C) tapeta-t  					talapeña, peñón, peña, talpetate, peñasco, roca
		cliff, boulder
		cf. (?) peta-t "mat"
(SD) tapeta-t
		tahtapetat (pl.) 

(C) ta-pe:wia (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		cazar
		to hunt
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pe:wia "to hunt"

(C) tape:wil  					caza (lo cazado, lo que se va a cazar)
		game (what has been caught/hunted)
		-tape:wil (poss.)  nu-tape:wil "my game"
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pe:wia "to hunt", -l 'passive nominalization'
		CN cf. tlapeuilli (Sim.) "espantado, perseguido"
(SD) tape:wil

(C) tapi:k 					pisque (tamalito de masa y sal con nada adentro)
		a small tamale of corn dough and salt with nothing inside 
		tahtapi:k (pl.) 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pi:ki "to put together"
		CN tlapictli (Mol.) "cosa envuelta, así como tamal"
(SD) tapik

(SD) tapitsa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		pitar
		to blow a whistle, to be blowing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pitsa "to blow a whistle"

(C) ta-pitsakua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		adelgazar
		to make thinner, slimmer
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pitsakua "to make skinnier"
		cf. (SD) tapitsakua "to break into pieces"

(SD) ta-pitsakua 				pedacear
		to break into pieces, to be breaking (something) into pieces 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pitsakua "to break into pieces"
		cf. (C) tapitsakua "to make slimmer"

(C) tapitsak-xini (i.v.) 			lloviznar
		to sprinkle, to drizzle
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pits(a:w)ak "thin", xi:ni "to scatter, to fall"

(C) ta-pixka (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		tapiscar (piscar)
		to pick, to harvest, to be picking
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pixka "to pick"
(SD) ta-pixka

(C) ta-pi:xua (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		poner huevos
		to lay (eggs)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pi:xua "to lay (eggs)" 
		tapi:xu-s-neki "(she) wants to lay an egg (-s-neki 'desiderative')
(SD) ta-pixua

(C, SD) tapua "to open"; see  tapuwa

(C) ta-pukwia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		ahumar
		to smoke, to cure, to be smoking (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pukwia "to smoke, to cure"

(SD) ta-pulua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		perder
		to lose, to lose (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pulua "to lose"

(C) ta-pu:nia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		parir (de animales) 
		to give birth to, to bear (of animals)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pu:nia "to give birth"

(C) tapupuch  					el humo del copal
		copal incense smoke
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', cf. pupuchwia "to smoke, to incense" 
		CN cf. tlapopochui (Sim.) "turiferario, el que incensa, perfuma"

(C) ta-pupuchwia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  	sahumar
		to smoke with incense, to be incensing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pupuchwia "to incense"

(C) ta-pu:pu:wa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		limpiar
		to clean, to be cleaning
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pu:pu:wa "to clean"
(SD) ta-pu:pu:wa

(C) ta-pusteki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		doblar
		to bend, to fold, to be folding
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', pusteki "to fold"

(SD) ta-pusteki  				doblar maíz
		to bend corn stalks, to be bending corn plants

(C) tapuwa (tapua (?)) (t.v.)  			abrir
		to open
		tapuwa (pres.)
		tapuh (pret.) ni-k-tapuh "I opened it"
		tapuh-tuk (perf.)
		CN tlapoa (Car.) "abrir"; PN *tlapowa
(SD) tapuwa
		((?) tapua)
		tapuh (pret.)
		tapuh-tuk (perf.)

(C) tapu:ya:wa  			temprano, de dia, ya es de dia, madrugada, manana 			early, morning, early in the day
		CN cf. tlapoyaua (Sim.) "estar ya oscuro"
(SD) tapu:yawa

(SD) tartahiar, -chiwa  			tartajear
		to stutter, to stammer
		Sp. tartajear

(SD) tartaho(h)  				tartajo
		stutter
		Sp. tartajo

(C) ta:sa (t.v, r.v.)  				trancar, topar(se)
		to bump,  to collide  with, to meet by chance, to abut, to brace up, to close
		ta:sa (pres.) ni-k-ta:sa "I brace it", ni-mu-ta:sa "I bump into"
		ta:s-ki (pret.)
		ta:s-tuk (perf.)
		CN tla:sa (Car.) "echar, derribar"; mo-tlaça (Sim.) "arrojarse sobre alguien, derribar a 			alguien"
(SD) ta:sa

(C) ta-sahsaka (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		acarrear 
		to carry, to cart, to be carrying
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', sahsaka "to cart, to carry" 
(SD) ta-sahsaka

(C) tasesek  					frío, helada (hielo de la madrugada)
		cold, frost
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.'
		cf. (SD) sesek "cold"
		CN cecec (Sim.)

(SD) ta-se(:)wi (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		apagar
		to extinguish, to put (something) out
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', se(:)wi "to extinguish"

(C) tasuhta (t.v.) 				querer, estimar, amar
		to love, to esteem
		tasuhta (pres.) ni-k-tasuhta "I love him/her" tasuhta-k (pret.)
		tasuhta-tuk (perf.)
		CN tlasoʔtla (Car.) "amar a otro"
(SD) tasuhta

(C) ta-su:ma (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		pelear, pegar
		to hit, to fight, to be fighting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', su:ma "to hit, to fight"

(SD) ta-sutuma (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		desatar
		to untie, to be untying, to untie something
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', sutuma "to untie"

(C) ta-suwa (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		tender
		to spread out, to stretch out, to be stretching out 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', suwa "to spread, to stretch"
(SD) ta-suwa
	
(C) tata (i.v.)  					quemarse (arder)
		to burn
		tata (pres.)
		tata-k (pret.)
		tata-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tatia (t.v.) "to burn"; cf. tata (adj.) "hot"
		CN tlatla (Car.) "arder, quemarse"; PN *tlatla 
(SD) tata (i.v.)  				quemarse, encenderse
		to burn, to be lit, to catch on fire
	
(C) tata (adj.)  					caliente (tataʔ)
		hot
		cf. tata "to burn"
	
(SD) tatah  					padre
		father
		CN cf. taʔtli (Car.)

(C) tatahku  					entre medio, en el centro 
		in the middle, in between
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tahku "half; among, between" 
	
(C) ta-takulia (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		regalar
		to give (gift)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', takulia "to give"
(SD) ta-takulia
	
(SD) ta-tankwa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		morder
		to bite, to be biting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tankwa "to bite"
	
(SD) tata-noy  					abuelo
		grandfather

(SD) ta-tantia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		afilar 
		to sharpen, to be sharpening
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tantia "to sharpen"
	
(SD) ta-tapa:na (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		reventar
		to break open, to explode, to be breaking (something) open" 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tapa:na "to break open"
	
(C) tatasi (i.v.)  			toser
		to cough
		tatasi (pres.)
		tatas-ki (pret.)
		tatas-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tatasi "cough"
		CN tlatlasi (Car.)
(SD) tatasi
		ni-tatasi "I'm coughing"

(C) tatasi (n.)  				tos, catarro 
		cough
		cf. tatasi (i.v.) "to cough" 
(SD) tatasi, tatasis (n.)		tos, catarro 
		cf. tatasi "to cough", -s 'nominalization'
		CN tlatlaciztli (Sim.) "catarro, tos"

(C) ta-ta:wilua (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		alumbrar, brillar
		to light, to shine, to be shining
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ta:wilua "to light, to shine"

(SD) ta-te:ka (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		tortear (hacer tortillas) 
		to make tortillas
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', te:ka "to make tortillas"

(C) ta-teki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		cortar (fruta)
		to cut (fruit), to be cutting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', teki "to cut (fruit)"
(SD) tateki

(C) tate:mpan  				a la(s) orilla(s)
		at the edge, border, on the brink
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', -te:m-pan "edge, bank"
(SD) tate:mpan 	a la orilla, al interior (donde van a defecar)
		at the edge, on the brink; to the interior (where one goes to defecate)

(SD) mu-tate:mulia (r.v., applic.)  		buscar dondequiera
		to search everywhere, to look for all over
		mu-tate:mulia (pres.)
		mu-tate:mulih (pret.)
		mu-tate:mulih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-  frozen (?) 'unspec. obj.', te:mua "to look for", -lia 'applic.'
		cf. (C) mu-tate:muwilia "to look for something for someone"

(C) mu-tate:muwilia (r.v., applic.)    		buscarselo (buscar algo para uno mismo) 
		to look for something for oneself, to scrounge up 
		mu-tate:muwilia (pres.) ni-mu-tate:muwilia "I'm looking for something for myself"
		mu-tate:muwilih (pret.)
		mu-tate:muwilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- frozen (?) 'unspec. obj.', te:mua "to look for", -(i)lia 'applic.'
		cf. (SD) mu-tate:mulia "to look everywhere for" 

(C) ta-te:nna:miki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  	besar, adorar, venerar (un imagen)
		to kiss, to worship, to venerate (a saint), to be kissing, worshipping
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', te:nna:miki "to kiss, to venerate, to worship"
		cf. (SD) ta-te:nna:miki "to kiss"

(C) ta-te:nna:miki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  	besar
		to kiss, to be kissing
		tate:nna:miki (pres.) ni-tate:nna:miki "I kiss" (nitate:nna:migiʔ)
		tate:nna:mik (pret.)
		tate:nna:mik-tuk, tate:nna:miki-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.'
		CN cf. tlatennamictli (Sim.) "besado"
		cf. (C) te:nna:miki "to kiss, to worship"; (C) ta-te:nna:miki "to be kissing, 					worshipping"

(C) tateputstah  				atrás, hacia atras
		behind
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', (?) teputs "back, behind"
		CN cf. tlateputzyotl (Sim.) "parte opuesta, trasera de algo"

(C) tatia (t.v.)  					quemar
		to burn
		tatia (pres.) ni-k-tatia "I'm burning it" (niktatiyaʔ)
		tatih (pret.)
		tatih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tata (i.v.) "to burn"
		CN tlatia (Car.) "quemar"; PN *tlatia

(C) tatia  					quemar, prender (encender)
		to burn, to set on fire

(C) ta-tu:ka (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		sembrar
		to plant, to be planting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tu:ka "to plant"
		cf. tatu:kal "planting, planted field", tatu:kani "planter" 
(SD) ta-tu:ka

(C) tatu:kal  					la siembra (tatu:gal)
		planted field, planting -tatu:kal (poss.) 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tu:ka "to plant", -l 'passive nominalization'

(C) tatu:kani  					sembrador  (tatu:ganiʔ)
		planter, sower
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tu:ka "to plant", -ni 'agent'

(SD) tatwa (i.v.)  				divertirse
		to have fun, to amuse oneself
		tatwa (pres.)  ni-tatwa "I'm having fun"
		tatwa-k (pret.)
		tatwa-tuk (perf.)
		cf. perhaps (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', (i)ta "to see"
		cf. tatwi "to dawn:
		CN cf. ihtua (Sim.) "ver, usado en tierra caliente"
		(note: *tw changed to tt in "to see", cf. CN (ɨ)tta, Pipil (ɨ)ta, from PN 					*( ɨ)tta/*( ɨ)twa, from Proto Uto Aztecan *t ɨwa)

(C) tatwi (i.v.)  				amanecer
		to dawn
		tatwi (pres.)
		tatwi-k (pret.)  tatwi-k-a "it dawned already"
		tatwi-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tatwa "to have fun"; perhaps related to (i)ta "to see"
		CN tlatwi (Car.) "amanecer"
(SD) tatwi

(C) ta-tsahtsaya:na (t.v.,  unspec. obj., redup.) 	estar rompiendo, rajando
		to be breaking, splitting things
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tsaya:na "to break, to split"
		cf. (SD) ta-tsaya:na "to be splitting"

(C) tatsa:wani  				tejedor
		weaver
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tsa:wa "to weave", -ni 'agent'

(SD) ta-tsaya:na (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		rajar
		to split, to be splitting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tsaya:na "to split"
		cf. (C) ta-tsahtsaya:na "to be breaking, splitting things"

(C) ta-tsili:nia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		repicar (campana)
		to ring (bell), to be ringing
		tatsili:nia (pres.)
		tatsili:nih (pret.)
		tatsili:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tsili:ni "to ring"
(SD) ta-tsilinia

(C) tatsi:ni (i.v.)  				pringar (lloviznar debilmente)
		to sprinkle
		tatsi:ni (pres.)
		tatsi:n (?), tatsi:ni-k (?) (pret.)
		tatsi:n-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. tlatzini (Sim.) "estallar, hacer ruido al reventar, como un huevo que se cuece"

(SD) tatsinuh (adv.)  				abajo
		below, low
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', -tsin "base", (?) uh "road"

(C) tatsiwi (i.v.)  				tener pereza, ser haragan
		to feel lazy, to be lazy
		tatsiwi (pres.) ni-tatsiwi "I feel lazy, I'm lazy"
		tatsiw-ki, tatsiwi-k (pret.)
		tatsiw-tuk (perf.)
		CN tlatsiwi (car.) "tener pereza"
(SD) tatsiwi
		tatsiw-ki (pret.)

(SD) ta-tsuma (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		costurar
		to sew, to be sewing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tsuma "to sew"
		cf. (C) ihtsuma

(SD) ta-tsumpilua (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		agachar, poner cabeza abajo 
		to put one's head down, to crouch, to put upside-down
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tsum-pilua "to put one's head down, to crouch" 

(C) ta-tsunchalua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		machucar
		to smash, to mash, to be mashing (something)
		ta- 'unspec. obj.', tsun-chalua "to mash"
		cf. (SD) tatsunchalua "to stumble"

(SD) tatsunchalua (i.v.)  			tropezar
		to stumble
		tatsunchalua (pres.)
		tatsunchaluh (pret.) ni-tatsunchaluh "I stumbled"
		tatsunchaluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.' 
		cf. (C) tsun-chalua "to mash"; (C) ta-tsunchalua "to be mashing"
(C) ta-tsutsu:na (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		tocar (instrumento)
		to play (an instrument), to be playing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tsutsu:na "to play" 
(SD) ta-tsutsu:na

(SD) tatsuwis-a:-t  				Río Haragan (nombre de un río) 
		"Lazy River" (name of a river)
		cf. tatsiwi "to be lazy", a:-t "water, river"

(C) ta-tsuyu:nia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		freir
		to fry, to be frying (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', tsuyu:nia "to fry"

(SD) ta-u:lintia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		menear (tawu:lintiyaʔ)
		to stir, to move, to be moving, to be stirring
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', u:lintia "to move, to stir"      

(C) ta-ululua (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		recoger  (ta(w)ululuwaʔ)
		to pick up, to gather
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ululua "to pick up"

(SD) ta-ululua  				arrollar
		to roll

(SD) ta-u:ya (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		desgranar (maíz)
		to shell (corn), to be shelling
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', u:ya "to shell"
		cf. tawiya "to shell corn"

(C) -ta:wah, -ta:bah  				rodilla, rótula
		knee, kneecap
		nu-ta:wah, nu-ta:bah "my kneecap, my knee"
		Sp. taba

(C) ta:wa:na (i.v.)  				embolarse, emborracharse
		to get drunk, to become intoxicated
		ta:wa:na (pres.)
		ta:wa:n-ki (pret.) ni-ta:wa:n-ki "I got drunk" (nita:wa:ngiʔ) 
		ta:wa:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mu-ta:wa:ntia "to get drunk"
		CN tla:wa:na (Car.) "beber vino"
		cf. (SD) tawa:ni

(SD) tawa:ni (i.v.)  				embolarse, emborracharse 
		to get drunk, to become intoxicated 
		tawa:ni (pres.)
		tawa:n-ki (pret.)
		tawa:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mu-tawa:ntia "to get drunk"; cf. tawa:n-tuk (adj.) "drunk"
		cf. (C) ta:wa:na

(C) mu-ta:wa:ntia (r.v.)  			embolarse, emborracharse
		to get drunk, to become intoxicated
		mu-ta:wa:ntia (pres.) ni-mu-ta:wa:ntia "I'm getting drunk" (nimuta:wa:ntiyaʔ)
		mu-ta:wa:ntih (pret.)
		mu-ta:wa:ntih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta:wa:na "to get drunk", -tia 'caus.'
		CN cf. tla:wa:ntia (UC) "emborrachar a otro"; tlauantia (Sim.) "hacer beber, 				emborrachar"
(SD) mu-tawa:ntia

(SD) tawa:n-tuk (adj.)  			bolo, borracho
		drunk, intoxicated
		cf. tawa:ni "to get drunk", -tuk 'perf.'

(SD) ta-wa:tsa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		secar algo 
		to dry something, to be drying (things) 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', wa:tsa "to dry"

(SD) ta-wawa:na (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		rascar, piafar
		to scratch, to paw (hoof), to be scratching (something) 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', wawa:na "to scratch, to paw"

(C) tawe:ykan  				campo (tierra abierta) (tawe:ygaŋ)
		open ground, uncovered ground, field
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', (?) we:y "big" -kan ('place of')

(C) ta-wi:ka (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		llevar
		to carry, to bear, to be carrying
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', wi:ka "to take, to carry"
(SD) ta-wi:ka

(C) ta-wi:kilia (t.v., unspec. obj., applic.) 	deber (una deuda)
		to owe (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', wi:kilia "to owe"
		cf. wi:ka "to take, to carry"
(SD) ta-wi:kilia

(C) ta:wil  			candíl, candela, encendida, tusa prendida, el alumbrado (luz)
		light (e.g. from a candle, oil lamp, lighted cornhusk)
		cf. ta:wilua "to light"
		CN tlauilli (Sim.) "luz, claridad"; cf. tla:wia (Car.) "almubrar"

(C) ta-wile:wa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		destruir, deshacer
		to destroy, to take apart, to destroy (something)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', wile:wa "to destroy"

(C) ta:wilua (t.v.)  				alumbrar
		to light, to illuminate
		ta:wilua (pres.)
		ta:wiluh (pret.) ni-k-ta:wiluh "I lighted/illuminated it"
		ta:wiluh-tuk (perf.)
		xi-k-ta:wilu "light it!"
		cf. ta:wil "light"; ta-ta:wilua "to light, to illuminate"
		CN cf. tlauilia (Sim.) "alumbrar"
(SD) ta:wilua

(C) tawipan-ti   				entoldo, rancho (casa indígena con techo de paja 							y paredes de varas)
		native house (with  thatched roof and walls of sticks or canes)
		CN cf. tlauipantli (Sim.) "arreglado, ordenado"
		cf. (SD) tawipan-ti "panti of wood"

(SD) tawipan-ti  			panti (conjunto de madera picada, leña arrelada en 							montones);  varitas  de la pared (de casa cuando no  							tiene tierra)      
		a measure of firewood (piled, chopped firewood); canes or sticks of the walls of a 			house (without dirt)
		CN tlauipantli (Sim.) "arreglado, ordenado"
		cf. (C) tawipan-ti "native house"

(C) ta-witeki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		castigar, azotar
		to punish, to whip, to be punishing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', witeki "to punish, to whip"

(SD) ta-witeki  				pegar, golpear, aporrear
		to hit, to beat, to club, to be beating

(SD) ta-wiwita (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		arrancar, desplumar
		to pull out,  to pluck (feathers),  to be pulling (something) out      
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', wiwita "to pull out, to pluck"

(C) ta-wiya (cf. also ta-u:ya) (t.v., unspec. obj.) 	desgranar
		to shell (corn), to be shelling
		tawiya (pres.)  ni-tawiya "I'm shelling (corn)"
		tawix-ki (pret.)
		tawix-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', u:ya "to shell"
		cf. tawiyal "corn, maize"
		CN cf. o:ya (UC); oya (Sim.) "desgranar una espiga"
		(SD) ta-wiya (cf. also ta-u:ya)

(C) tawiyal  					maíz (granos de maíz ya desgranado)
		corn, maize (kernels of shelled corn)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', wiya (u:ya) "to shell", -l 'passive nominalization'
		CN tlaolli (Car.) "maíz"; tlaolli, tlayolli (Sim.) "maíz desgranado"; PN *tlayo:l-
(SD) tawiyal

(SD) ta:wrete(h)  				silla, taburete
		chair, stool, small bench
		Sp. taburete

(SD) ta-xakwalua (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		machucar, pelear (de perros) 
		to mash, to be mashing; for dogs to be fighting
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', xakwalua "to mash, for dogs to fight"

(C) ta-xa:ma:nia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		tostar tortillas
		to toast tortillas, to be toasting tortillas
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', xa:ma:nia "to toast tortillas" 
		cf. taxa:ma:nti  "tostado" (food)

(C) taxa:ma:nti  				está tostado 
		toasted (it's toasted)
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', xa:ma:nia "to toast tortillas", (?) -ti ('nominalizer')

(SD) ta-xawa (t.v., unspec. obj.) 		 rozar, desmontar
		to clear ground, to weed out, to be clearing ground, weeding 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', xawa "to clear ground, to weed"

(C) taxi:ka (i.v.)  				gotear
		to drip, to leak  
		taxi:ka (pres.)  taxi:ka "it is dripping" (taxi:gaʔ)
		taxi:ka-k (pret.)
		taxi:ka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', xi:ni "to sprinkle, scatter"
		CN tlaxica (Sim.) "tener goteras, pasar el agua (la casa)"
(SD) taxi:ka

(C) ta-xi:nia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		regar
		to sprinkle, to scatter, to be scattering cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', xi:nia "to sprinkle"

(SD) ta-xi:pewa (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		pelar, descascarar
		to peel, to remove the skin, bark, shell, to be peeling 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', xi:pewa "to skin, peel"

(C) taxkal  				el golpe de hacer tortillas, tortilla
		the patting of tortilla making, tortilla
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', (i)xka "to roast", -l 'passive nominalization'
		cf. taxkalua "to make tortillas"
		cf. tamal "tortilla"
		CN tlaxkalli (Car.) "tortilla"
(SD) taxkal 	rigua (tortilla de elote tierno)
		rigua (tortilla made of young, tender ears of corn) 
		-taxkal (poss.) nu-taxkal "my rigua"
		tahtaxkal (pl.) 
(Jicalapa, Chiltiupan) taxkal  		tortilla
		tortilla

(C) taxkalua (t.v. (?))  		tortear, hacer tortillas
		to make tortillas
		taxkalua (pres.)
		taxkaluh (pret.)
		taxkaluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. taxkal "tortilla", -ua 'passive/inchoative'
		CN tlaxcaloa (Sim.) "hacer pan"
(SD) taxkalua

(SD) taxta:wa (t.v.)  			pagar
		to pay
		taxta:wa (pres.)
		taxta:w(-ki) (pret.)  ni-k-taxta:w "I paid it"
		taxta:w-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ta- frozen 'unspec. obj.'
		CN cf. (i)xtla:wa (Car.) "pagar"; cf. tla-xtla:wia
		cf. (C) taxta:wia

(C) taxta:wia (t.v.)  			pagar
		to pay
		taxta:wia (pres.)
		taxta:wih (pret.)
		taxta:wih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ta- frozen 'unspec. obj.'
		CN tla-xtla:wia (Car.) "pagar"; cf. (i)xtla:wa
		cf. (SD) taxta:wa

(C) taxwi:s  				grano, nacido (barro)
		pimple, boil
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', ixwi "to fill", -s 'nominalization'
		CN tlaxuiztli (Sim.) "absceso, furúnculo, tumor; tlaxuiztli (Mol.) "encordio o nacido"
(SD) tay  				¿qué?, que
		what
		tay orah "when, at the time that"
		CN tle, tlein (Car.); PN *tla-
		cf. (C) ta:

(C) tayi (t.v.)  				rozar, limpiar milpa, rozar monte 
		to clear ground, to clean/weed the milpa 
		tayi (pres.) ni-k-tayi "I clear/clean it" (niktayiʔ) 
		tax-ki (pret.)
		tax-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tayil "clearing land"
		CN tlai (Sim.) "labrar, preparar la tierra para la siembra" 
(SD) tayi

(SD) tayika  				¿por qué?, porque
		why?, because
		tayika ti-wa:lah "why did you come?" 
		cf. tay "what", ika "therefore"
		CN tleica (Sim.) "¿por qué?"

(C) tayil  				la roza
		clearing land (the clearing of ground
		cf. tayi "to clear land", -l 'passive nominalization" 
(SD) tayil
	
(C) tayuwa  				de noche, la noche
		at night, night
		ka tayuwa "in the night, at night" 
		cf. tayuwaki nemi "night is falling" 
		cf. (?) ta- 'unspec. obj.', yuwaki "dark"
		CN tlayoa (Sim.) "ser ya noche, estar oscuro", cf. tlayoualli (Sim.) "oscuridad"; PN 			*tlayowa "to be night, to be dark"
(SD) tayuwa
	
(C) te:-  				'alguien' (en palabras compuestas)
		'someone' (in compounds; non-productive prefix)
(SD) te-
	
(C, SD) te- 				'piedra' (en palabras compuestas)
		'stone' (in compounds)
		cf. te-t "stone, rock"

(C, SD) te-, ti(:)- 			'fuego' (en palabras compuestas) 
		'fire' (in compounds)
		cf. ti(:)-t "fire"
	
(C) te:  				no (te:ʔ)
		no
		cf. tesu "no"
		cf. te: ke:man "never", te: ye:k "bad", te:yuk "not yet"
(SD) te:
		cf. te: datka "nothing, you're welcome", te: ye:k "bad", te:yuk "not yet"

(C) -tech  			junto a, cerca de, pegado con, contra (sustantivo relacional)
		near, next to, against (relational noun)
		nu-tech "next to me"
		mu-tech "next to you" i-tech "next to him/her/it" 
		CN -tech (Car.) "en"; -tech (Sim.) "en, de, sobre, con, cerca"
	(SD) -tech
	
(SD) te:chan  				pueblo
		town
		-chan (poss.) 
		cf. te(:)- 'someone', chan "house"
		cf. (C) tuchan "town"

(C) mu-techtia (r.v.)  			tener tristeza, estar triste 
		to be sad
		mu-techtia (pres.)
		mu-techtih (pret.)
		mu-techtih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) -tech "against", -tia 'caus.'

(SD) te: datka  			nada, de nada, no hya de que 
		nothing; you're welcome
		cf. te: "no"
		cf. (C) tesu datka "nothing"

(C) te:hah  				teja
		tile, roof-tile
		tehtehah (pl.) 
		Sp. teja
(SD) te:hah
		tehte:has (pl.) 

(C) tehchiya (i.v. (?))  		esperar
		to wait
		tehchiya (pres.) ni-tehchiya "I'm waiting" 
		tehchix-ki (pres.)(?)
		tehchix-tuk (perf.)(?)
		xi-tehchiya "wait!"
		xi-tehcha-kam-a "wait now!" (pl.) 
		cf. (?) te(:)- 'someone', chiya "to see"

(C) tehemet  				nosotros
		we
		te(:)met 'abbreviated form'
		CN teʔwantin (Car.)
(SD) tehemet

(C) tehe:ri:k  				tos ferina 
		whooping cough

(SD) te:hkiya  				verdad, así es 
		right, that is so, true 
		cf. kiya "thus"

(C) tehku (i.v.)  			subir, trepar 
		to climb, to ascend, to go up, to rise
		tehku (pres.) ni-tehku "I'm climbing, I'm going up" 
		tehku-k (pret.)
		tehku-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tehkultia (t.v.) "to raise"
		CN tleʔku (Car.) "subir"; PN :tləhko
(SD) tehku

(C) tehkultia (t.v.)  			subir
		to raise, to lift
		tehkultia (pres.)
		tehkultih (pret.)
		tehkultih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tehku "to climb, to rise", -(l)tia 'caus.' 
		CN tleʔkoltia (UC) "subir alguna cosa arriba"
(SD) tehkultia

(C) tehmats-nah  			polvoso
		dusty
		cf. teh-ti "dust"

(SD) tehte-mi:ma (t.v., incorp., redup.) 	apedrar
		to stone
		cf. te-t "stone", tehtet (pl.), mi:ma "to throw"

(C) tehte:mua (t.v., redup.)  		rebuscar
		to search for
		tehte:mua (pres.)
		tehte:muh (pret.) ni-k-tehte:muh "I searched for it"
		cf. te:mua "to look for"

(SD) tehte:ne:wa (t.v., redup.) 	"contradecir", hablar mal de otro (criticar)
		to speak against someone, to speak ill of, to criticize
		tehte:ne:wa (pres.)
		tehte:ne:w-ki (pret.) ni-k-tehte:ne:w-ki "I criticized him"
		tehte:ne:w-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. te:ne:wa (Car.) "prometer"; teneua (Sim.) "nombrar, votar por, prometer, fijar, 			estimar" 
		cf. (C) te:ne:wa

(C) teh-ti  				polvo
		dust
		CN teuhtli (Mol.) 
		cf. (SD) tew-ti

(C) te:ka (t.v.)  			acostar, poner al suelo, dejar al suelo
		to lay down, to put on the ground
		te:ka (pres.)
		te:ka-k (pret.)
		te:ka-tuk (perf.)
		ni-k-te:ka ta:lchi "I lay it on the ground"
		cf. mu-te:ka "to lie down"
		CN te:ka (Car.) "echar,  poner, acostar, asentar piedras, poner maderos en el suelo  			tendidos, envasar alguna cosa liquida"; PN *te:ka "to lay down, to lie down"
		cf. (SD) te:ka "to make tortillas"

(SD) te:ka (t.v.)  			tortear, echar tortillas
		to make tortillas
		cf. ta-te:ka "to be making tortillas"; cf. mu-te:ka "to lie down" 
		cf. (C) te:ka "to lay down, to put on the ground"

(C) mu-te:ka (r.v.) 			acostarse
		to lie down
		cf. mu- 'reflexive', te:ka "to lay down"
		CN mo-te:ka (Car.)
(SD) mu-te:ka
		cf. (?) te:ka "to make tortillas"

(C) tekechul   				pacuil, pajuil, guara (loroʔ) (pájaro) (tegechul) 
		bird sp., a parrot-like bird which can talk
		tehtekechul (pl.) 
		CN cf. quecholli (Sim.) "pájaro de brillante plumaje muy solicitado"; kecho:lli (Car.)

(C) te: ke:man  			nunca
		never
		cf. te: "no", ke:man "when"
		CN cf. aic quemman (Sim.)
		cf. (SD) tesu ke:man "never"

(C) teki (t.v.)  				cortar, cortar fruta
		to cut, to cut fruit 
		teki (pres.) ni-k-teki "I cut it" (niktegiʔ) 
		tek (pret.)
		tek-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-teki "to cut (something)"
		CN teki (Car.)
(SD) teki

(C) teki-maka (t.v.)  			dar trabajo, dar que hacer
		to give work
		tekimaka (pres.) ni-k-tekimaka "I give him work" (niktegimagaʔ)
		tekimaka-k (pret.)
		tekimaka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. teki-t "work", maka "to give"
		CN tequimaca (Sim.) "distribuir los empleos, cargos, el trabajo"
(SD) teki-maka

(C) tekipanua (t.v., r.v.) 		mantenerse, preparar su propia comida (hacer los 							trabajos de la casa uno mismo)
		to maintain oneself, to prepare one's own food, to do household chores by oneself  
		tekipanua (pres.) ni-mu-tekipanua "I take care of myself/fix my own food" 				(nimutegipanuwaʔ), ni-k-tekipanua "I  make the food for her"
		cf. (?) teki-t "work", panu "to pass"
		CN tekipanoa (Car.) "trabajar"; tequipanoa (Sim.) "trabajar, servir"
(SD) tekipanua

(SD) teki-t  				trabajo, oficio
		work, job, chore, duty
		-teki-w (poss.) nu-teki-w "my work" (nutegiw)
		cf. tekiti "to work"
		CN tekitl (Car.) "obra, tributo"

(C) tekiti (i.v.)  			trabajar
		to work
		tekiti (pres.)  ni-tekiti "I work" (nitegitiʔ)
		tekit-ki (pret.)
		tekit-tuk (perf.)
		cf. teki-t "work"
		CN tequiti (Sim.) "trabajar, pagar tributo"; PN *təkiti
(SD) tekiti
		tekiti-k (pret.)
		tekiti-tuk (perf.)

(C) tekpan-tuk (adj.) 			en una linea recta, posteado rectamente, en formación 						recta de gente (alineado derechamente)
		in a straight line, lined up
		cf. -tuk 'perf.'
		CN cf. tekpana (UC) "poner en orden la gente"; tecpana (Sim.) "colocar en orden, en 			hileras hablando de personas, ordenar"

(SD) tekpa-t  				un monte (planta del campo)
		plant sp., a wild plant
		CN cf. tecpatli (Sim.) "planta cuyo raíz se adhiere como el vixco y tiene la propiedad 			de producir jabón"

(C) tekpin  				pulga
		flea
		tehtekpin (pl.) 
		CN tecpin (Mol.)
(SD) tekpin

(C) tekpuyu:-tsin  			chacuate (un saltamonte sin alas) 
		a wingless grasshopper
		CN cf. (?) tecpoyotl (Sim.) "pregonero"

(C) teksis-ti  				huevo, testículo
		egg, testicle
		-teksis (poss.) i-teksis "its egg, its testicle" 
		cf. i-teksis-kuyame-t "cojón tree"
		CN cf. te:ksistli (Car.) "caracol" 
(SD) teksis-ti
		tehteksisti (pl.) 
		i-teksis ne tihlan "chicken's egg" 
		i-teksis "its egg, its testicle"

(SD) teksis-tsi:ka-t  			frijol de hormiga 
		bean sp., "ant-egg" bean
		cf. teksis-ti "egg", tsi:ka-t "ant"

(C) -te:ku  				padre, papa
		father
		nu-te:ku "my father" (nute:guʔ) 
		cf. tu-te:ku "God, the Father"
		CN te:kw-tli (Car.) "principal, caballero"; tecutli  (Sim.) "noble, senor"; PN *te:kw-
(SD) -te:ku

(C) mu-te:kukuhmati (r.v.)  		resentirse
		to resent, to be offended
		mu-te:kukuhmati (pres.) ni-mu-te:kukuhmati "I am offended" 
		mu-te:kukuhmat-ki (pret.) (?)
		mu-te:kukuhmat-ti (perf.) (?)
		cf. (?) te:- 'someone', kuku- ('hurt'), mati "to know,  to feel"
		CN cf. tecoco (Sim.) "doloroso, triste, hacer sufrir"

(C) tekulu:-t  				tecolote
		owl
		tehtekulu:t (pl.) 
		tekulu:-tsin "little owl" (tecolotillo)
		CN tekolotl (Car.) "buho"; PN *təkolo:-
(SD) tekulu:-t (tegulu:t)

(C) tekuma-t  				tecomate
		bottle gourd, gourd for water, gourd canteen
		-tekun (poss.) nu-tekun "my water gourd" (netekuŋ)
		tehtekumat (pl.) 
		CN tekomatl (Car.) "vaso"; tecomatl (Sim.) "árbol cuyo fruto es una especie de 				calabaza que servía de vasija"
(SD) tekuma-t (tegumat)

(C) tekuma-xu:chi-t  			tecomasuchil, tecumaxuchu, tecomasucho (árbol) 
		tree  sp.,  large,  its fruit or seed is like a small  bottle 
		gourd with "cotton" inside, the bark is easily peeled and is used for belts 
		cf. tekuma-t "bottle gourd", xu:chi-t "flower"
(SD) tekuma-xu:chu-t

(C) tekunal  				brasa (tekunal)
		live coal
		cf. te- 'fire'
		CN teconalli (Sim.) "carbón"
(SD) tekunal (tegunal)

(C) tekusma  				condor (clase de zopilote (?))
		vulture sp. (?)
		cf. (?) te- 'rock', kusma "vulture"

(C) -te:kuyu  				dueno 
		owner 
		i-te:kuyu "its owner"
		cf. te:ku "father", -yu 'intimate poss.' (?)
		CN cf. tecuyo (Sim.) "señor grande,  cf. tetecuyo (Sim.) "el dueno de esclavos"
(SD) -te:kuyu

(C) tekwalutsa (t.v.)  				dejar que otro lo coma
		to let someone else eat something
		ki-tekwalutsa "(she) lets him eat" 
		cf. (?) te- 'someone', kwa "to eat"

(Teotepeque) tekwani  			tigre (jaguar) 
		jaguar
		cf. te- 'someone (people)', kwa "to eat", -ni 'agent'

(C) tekwisih  					cangrejo
		crab
		-tekwisih (poss.) nu-tekwisih "my crab"
		tehtekwisih (pl.) 
		CN tecuicitli (Sim.) "cangrejo del mar"
(SD) tekwisih 		cangrejo (de agua dulce)
		fresh-water crab

(C) -te:lpu:ch  					hijo
		son
		nu-te:lpu:ch "my son"
		-te:lpu:ch-wan (poss. pl.)
		te:lpu:ch-tsin "small son" (hijito) 
		CN te:lpo:chtli (Car.) "mancebo"; telpochtli (Sim.) "muchacho, hombre joven, hijo"
(SD) te:lpuch

(SD) tel-tsapuyuh  				nombre de un rÍo
		name of a river
		cf. tsapu-t "zapote" (?)

(C) te:ma (t.v.)  				llenar
		to fill
		te:ma (pres.)
		te:n (pret.)
		te:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. te:mi (i.v.) "to fill", te:mitia "to fill", te:n-tuk (adj.) "full"
		CN te:ma (Car.) "poner maÍz, trigo, reales"; tema (Sim.) "llenar algo de semillas o de 			tierra, colocar"

(C) te:mal  					materia, pus
		pus
		cf. te:ma "to fill", -l 'passive nominalization'
		CN temalli (Sim.) "pus, humor"
(SD) te:mal

(C) tema:ta-t  					honda
		sling, slingshot
		-tema:ta-w (poss.) i-tema:ta-w "his sling"
		i-tehtema:ta-w (poss. pl.) "his slings" cf. te- 'stone', ma:ta-t "net"
		CN tematlatl (Sim.) "honda"

(C) te:mi (i.v.)  				llenarse
		to fill
		te:mi (pres.)
		te:mi-k (pret.)
		te:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. te:ma (t.v.) "to fill", te:mitia "to fill"
		CN temi (Sim.) "llenarse"

(SD) te:miki (t.v.)  				soñar
		to dream
		te:miki (pres.)
		te:miki-k (pret.) ni-k-te:miki-k "I dreamed it"
		te:mik-tuk (perf.)
		CN te:miki (UC) "soñar algo"; temiqui (Sim.) "soñar, imaginar"
(C) te:mitia (t.v.) 				 llenar
		to fill
		te:mitia (pres.)
		te:mitih (pret.) ki-te:mitih "(she) filled it"
		te:mitih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. te:mi (i.v.) "to fill", te:ma (t.v.) "to fill"
		CN temitia (Sim.) "llenar"

(C) te:mpah  					tempate (árbol)
		tree sp., sap is good for mouth burns
		cf. te:n "mouth", pah-ti "medicine"
(SD) te:mpah

(SD) mu-te:mpa:ka (r.v., incorp.)		lavar la 
		boca to wash one's mouth
		cf. te:n "mouth", pa:ka "to wash"

(C) -te:mpan  					orilla, borde
		edge, border, brink, bank, shore
		i-te:mpan "its edge, at the edge of it" 
		cf. tate:mpan "at the edge of"
		cf. te:n "mouth", -pan 'locative'

(C) mu-te:mpe:lua (r.v., incorp.)		abrir la boca 
		to open one's mouth
		xi-mu-te:mpe:lu "open your mouth!" 
		cf. te:n "mouth", pe:lua "to open" 
		cf. (SD) te:mpelua "to yawn"

(SD) mu-te:mpelua (r.v., incorp.)		bostezar 
		to yawn
		cf. te:n "mouth", pelua "to open"
		cf. (C) te:mpe:lua "to open one's mouth"

(C) te:mpitsa (n.)  				guavina, guabina (pescado)
		fish sp., squirrel fish (?)
		tehte:mpitsa (pl.) 
		cf. te:n "mouth", pitsa "to blow, whistle"
		
(SD) te:mpixki  				tempisque (árbol)
		tree sp., medium sized, many branches, good for firewood 
		cf. te:n "mouth", pixki "for the nixtamal to be skinned" 
		cf. (C) te:mpixkis

(C) te:mpixkis  				tempisque (árbol)
		tree sp.
		cf. te:n "mouth", pixki "for the nixtamal to be skined", -s 'nominalization' 
		cf. (SD) te:mpixki
	
(C) te:m-pupuluka   				tartajo     
		stutter
		cf. te:n "mouth", pupuluka "not to speak well"

(C) temu (i.v.)  				bajarse
		to descend, to come down, to get down, to get off
		temu (pres.)  ni-temu "I'm getting down"
		temu-k (pret.)
		temu-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)altemu "to come down"; temultia "to lower"; se:ntemu "to come down 				together"; cf. temu a:-t "for water to run"
		CN temo (Car.) "bajar"; PN *temo(wa)
(SD) temu

(C) temu a:-t  					correr agua
		for water to run
		cf. temu "to come down, to descend", a:-t "water"

(C) te:mua (t.v.)  				buscar
		to look for
		te:mua (pres.) ni-k-te:mua "I'm looking for her/him/it"
		te:muh (pret.)
		te:muh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tehte:mua "to search for"; tate:muwilia "to scrounge"
		CN te:moa (Car.) "buscar"; PN *te:mowa
(SD) te:mua
		cf. tate:mulia "to look all over for"

(C) te(:)muhmu:tia (t.v., redup.)  		asustar a alguien
		to frighten someone
		cf. te(:)- 'someone', mu:tia "to frighten"; cf. te(:)mu:tia "to frighten someone"

(C) temultia (t.v.)  				bajar, apear
		to lower, to get down
		temultia (pres.)
		temultih (pret.) ni-k-temultih "I got it down" 
		temultih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. temu "to descend", -(l)tia 'caus.'
(SD) temultia

(C) te(:)mu:tia (t.v.)  				asustar a alguien
		to frighten someone
		cf. te(:)- 'someone', mu:tia "to frighten"
		cf. te(:)muhmu:tia "to frighten someone"

(SD) temu:yu-t  				chispa
		spark
		i-temu:yut ne tit "the fire's spark"
		tehtemu:yut (pl.) 
		cf. te- 'fire', mu:yu-t "gnat"
		CN tlemoyotl (Sim.) "centella, chispa" 
		cf. (C) timu:yu(:)-t 

(C) -te:n  					boca, orilla
		mouth, edge
		nu-te:n "my mouth"
		i-te:n ku:mi-t "mouth of the pot/jug"
		CN te:ntli (Car.) "labio"; tentli (Sim.) "labios, boca, borde", PN *te:n-
(SD) -te:n

(C) tenamas  					tenamaste
		hearth stones (rocks in fire to support pots, griddles, usually three)
		-tenamas (poss.) nu-tenamas "my hearth stones"
		cf. te- 'stone' (?)
		CN tenamaztli (Sim.) "triple soporte de la olla (tres piedras)"
(SD) tena:mas

(C) te:n a:-t  					orilla del río (te: ŋá:t)
		bank, edge of the river
		cf. te:n "mouth, edge", a:-t "water, rive"

(SD) -te:n-a:yu  				saliva, babea
		saliva, slobber, drivel
		nu-te:n-a:yu "my saliva" (nute:na:yuʔ)
		cf. te:n "mouth", a:-yu "liquid"
		cf. i-te:n-a:yu tuka-t "spiderwed"

(C) te:n-chichina (t.v., incorp.)  		besar
		to kiss
		ni-k-te:nchichina "I kiss her"
		cf. te:n "mouth", chichina "to suck"

(SD) tener, -chiwa  				sostener
		to maintain, to keep
		Sp. tener

(C) te:ne:wa (t.v.)  			hablar contra, hablar en mal de otra persona, criticar 
		to speak against, to speak ill of, to criticize someone
		te:ne:wa (pres.)
		te:ne:h (pret.) ki-te:ne:h "(she) criticizes him"
		te:ne:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) te:n "mouth"  
		CN cf. te:ne:wa (Car.) "prometer"; teneua (Sim.) "nombrar, llamar, descubrir los 				autores de un delito, alejar de alguien"
		cf. (SD) tehte:ne:wa

(SD) -te:n-ewayu  				labio
		lip
		i-te:n ewayu "his/her lip"  (ite:n ewayuʔ)
		cf, te:n "mouth", ewayu "skin"

(C) tenex  					cal
		lime
		-tenex (poss.)  nu-tenex "my lime" 
		cf. te- "stone", nex-ti "ash"
		CN tenextli (Sim.)
(SD) tenex

(SD) tengerechol  				tenguerechol, tenguereche (lagartija)
		lizard sp.
		Sp. tenguerechol

(C) te:n-kal (n.)  				parte afuera en frente o de la puerta de la casa, 							pátio de la puerta
		part outside before the door or before the house, patio or yard before the door
		cf. te:n "mouth", kal "house"
(SD) te:n-kal  (te:ŋgal]

(SD) te:nki:kis    			tenquiquis, tenquique, orejita de palo podrido (hongo)
		mushroom sp.
		cf. (?) te:n "mouth"

(C) te:nna:miki (t.v., incorp.)  		besar, adorar, venerar (un imagen)
		to kiss, to worship, to venerate (a saint)
		te:nna:miki (pres.) ni-k-te:nna:miki "I kiss/worship him" (nikte:nna:migiʔ)
		te:nna:mik (pret.)
		te:nna:mik-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-te:nna:miki "to be kissing/worshipping"
		CN tennamiqui (Sim.) "besar, jurar sobre la cruz"
		cf. (SD) tate:nna:miki "to kiss"

(C) te:nnux, te:nnux kwit    			callado (taciturno), persona que no quiere hablar 							(te:nnux)
		taciturn, one who speaks little or does not like to talk
		cf. te:n "mouth", (?) kwita-t "excrement"

(SD) te:n-sasal  			pajero, parlanchín (uno que habla mucho, ligero)
		chatterbox, one who speaks a lot or rapidly, one who stretches the truth
		cf. te:n "mouth", sasali-k "sticky"

(C) te:n-sulu:n-tuk (adj.)  		hinchado de la boca
		with swollen mouth
		cf. te:n "mouth", sulu:n-tuk "swollen"

(C)  te:n-tatsiwi   			callado (taciturno), persona que no quiere hablar
		taciturn, one who speaks little or does not like to talk
		cf. te:n "mouth", tatsiwi "lazy"

(C) te:n-ti:-t  				junto al fuego
		near the fire, by the fire
		cf. te:n "mouth, edge", ti:-t "fire"
(SD) te:n-ti:-t

(C) te:n-tuchan  			entrada del pueblo
		town entrance
		cf. te:n "mouth", tu-chan "town"

(C) te:n-tuk (adj.)  			lleno
		full
		cf. te:mi (i.v.) "to fill", te:ma (t.v.) "to fill", -tuk 'perf.'
(SD) te:n-tuk

(C) -te:n-tsahka  			tapón
		plug, cork, lid
		i-te:ntsahka "its cork" 
		cf. te:n "mouth", tsahka "lid"
		CN cf. tentzaqua (Mol.) "taparse la boca"
(SD) -te:n-tsahka
		i-te:ntsahka ne ku:mi-t "lid/cover of the pot/jug" (tapón de la olla)

(C)  te:n-tsatsas   			la orilla de un alzadero, orilla del tapesco donde 							guardan las cosas
		the edge of a storage place/storage bin/rack

(C) -te:n-tsi:ka-w  			barbilla, mentón, quijada
		chin, jaw
		i-te:ntsi:ka-w "his/her/its chin/jaw" (ite:ntsi:gaw) 
		cf. te:n "mouth", tsi:ka-t "ant", -w 'poss.'
(SD) -te:n-tsi:ka-w

(C) -te:n-tsun  				barba, bigote 
		beard, moustache
		i-te:ntsun "his beard"
		cf. te:n "mouth", tsun "hair" 
		CN tentzontli (Car.) "barba"

(C) te:ntsunyu:yuh  			barbón (árbol) 
		tree sp., "big-beard" tree 
		cf. te:n-tsun "beard"
		CN cf. (?) yoyotli (Sim.) "cascabel de madera"

(C) te:n=ulu-t  			jején (te: ŋulut)
		gnat
		cf. te:n "mouth", ulu-t "corncob"

(C) te:n-umi-t  			chonta (clase de paloma)
		bird, dove sp.
		te:n "mouth", u:mi-t "bone"

(C) te:n-xi:ma (t.v., r.v., incorp.)  	rasurara(se), afeitar(se) 
		to shave
		mu-te:nxi:ma "he is shaving"
		cf. te:n "mouth", xi:ma "to shave"

(C) -te:nxi:pal  			labio, jeta
		lip, snout
		i-te:nxi:pal "its snout"
		cf. te:n "mouth", (?) "to skin"  
		CN tenxipalli (Sim.) "gran labio"

(SD) -te:nxi:pal  			jeta, labio de animal
		snout, animal's lip
		i-te:nxi:pal "its lip" (ite: ŋxi:pał)

(C) te:paktia (t.v., 'someone')  	hacer reirse
		to make (someone) laugh
		te:paktia (pres.)
		te:paktih (pret.)
		te:paktih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. te:- 'someone', paktia "to make laugh" 
		cf. (SD) tepakti(h) "fun, happy"

(SD) tepakti(h) (adj. (?))  		alegre
		fun, happy
		cf. (C) te:paktia "to make (someone) laugh

(C) te:pal  				ajeno
		another's, foreign, someone else's
		cf. te:- 'someone', -pal 'poss.'
(SD) tepal

(SD) tepan-ti  				muro, cemento, tepante (muro de piedras) 
		wall, rock wall
		cf. te- 'stone', -pan 'locative' (?)
		CN tepantli (Sim.) "muro"

(C) tepe:kuyu-t  			Tepecoyo (nombre de un lugar, una finca) 
		Tepecoyo (place name, name of a ranch)
		cf. tepe:-t "mountain", kuyu:-t "coyote"

(C) tepe:-mich-in  			tepemichin (pescado)
		fish sp., "mountain fish"
		cf. tepe:-t "mountain", mich-in "fish"
(SD) tepe:-mich-in

(C) tepe:-t  				cerro
		mountain, hill, volcano
		-tepe:-w (poss.)  nu-tepe:-w "my mountain"
		tehtepe:t (pl.) 
		tepe:-tsin "hill" (cerrito)
		CN tepe:tl (Car.) "sierra, monte"
(SD) tepe:-t

(C) tepe:toroh  			Cerro del Toro (nombre de un lugar)
		"Bull Mountain" (place name)
		cf. tepe:-t "mountain", Sp. toro

(C) tepetskwinti   			tepescuinte (tepescuintle)
		agouti, paca
		-tepetskwinti (poss.) nu-tepetskwinti "my agouti" 
		tehtepetskwinti (pl.) 
		cf. tepe:-t "mountain", -ti frozen 'absolutive'
		CN tepeitzcuintli (Sim.) "cuadrupedo feroz muy parecido al perro"; cf. Itzcuintli 				(Sim.) "perro"
(SD) tepetskwinti

(SD) tepe:wa (t.v.)  			amontonar
		to pile up, to heap
		tepe:wa (pres.)
		tepe:w(-ki) (pret.)
		tepe:w-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tepe:-t "mountain"
		cf. tepe:wilia "to heap on"; (SD) tepe:wi "to abound"
		CN cf. tepe:wa (Car.) "esparcir, echar algo por el suelo" 

(SD) tepe:wi (i.v.)  			haber bastante, abundar
		to be sufficient, to abound
		tepe:wi (pres.)
		tepe:wi-k (pret.)
		tepe:w-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tepe:-t "mountain"
		cf. (C) tepe:wa "to pile up"
		CN cf. (?) tepeui (Sim.) "caer, esparcirse, hablando de hojas, de granos"

(C) tepe:wilia (t.v., applic.)  		echarselo, darle bastante, amontonarselo
		to heap on, to put a lot on (someone, something), to give a lot to (someone, 				something)
		tepe:wilia (pres.) ni-k-tepe:wilia "I'm putting a lot on it" 
		tepe:wilih (pret.)
		tepe:wilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tepe:wa "to pile up, to heap", -(i)lia 'applic.'

(SD) tepe:ya:-t  			creciento del río (río con agua crecida)
		high water, swell of water in the river
		cf. (?) tepe:-t "mountain", a:-t "water, river"

(SD) tepu:l  				pene
		penis
		CN tepulli (Sim.) "miembro viril, verga"

(C) tepu:l-ku:wa-t  			culebra de dos cabezas, tepulcua, tepolcua
		snake sp., a snake which appears to have two heads because its tail is round like its 			head, grey, lives in damp places; in Sp."two-headed snake", in Pipil "penis-snake" 
		cf. tepu:l "penis", ku:wa-t "snake"
(SD) tepu:l-ku:wa-t

(C) tepunas    				tepunás, piedra bofa (piedra pómez)
		pumice (stone)
		cf. te- 'stone'
		CN cf. (?) teponaztli (Sim.) "animal  acuatico"; ponacoa (Sim.) "llenar de viento 				alguna cosa"
		cf. tepupusa

(C) tepu:nawas  			tambor indígena (de un rollizo hueco)  
		native drum, made from a hollowed-out log 
		CN teponaztli (Sim.) "teponastle (tambor)" 
		cf. (SD) tepu:nawas "sign given one month before a  fiesta" 
(SD) tepu:nawas 	señal un mes antes del día de la fiesta, el anuncio del primer día de una fiesta
		sign one mouth before the day of a ceremony (fiesta), the announcement of the first 			day of a ceremony (fiesta)
		cf. (C) tepu:nawas "native drum"

(SD) tepu:na:was  				Tepunaguaste (nombre de un riito) 				Tepunaguaste (name of a small river)
		cf. tepu:nawas "sign one mounth before a fiesta" 
		cf. (C) tepu:nawas "native drum"

(C) tepu:n-nah (adj.)  				curvo (encorvado) (tepu:ŋnah) 
		curved, bent
		CN cf. (?) tepuntic (Sim.) "tronco de árbol"

(C) tepupusa  					piedra pómez
		pumice (stone)
		cf. te- 'stone', (?) pupusa "pupusa (food)"
		CN tepopococtli (Sim.) "piedra ligera, esponjasa" 
		cf. tepunas

(C) tepupu:yu  				pie de venado (planta (?))
		plant sp. (?), "deer-foot" plant
		cf. (?) te- 'stone', pupu:yu-t "blind"
(C) tepus-ti  hierro
		iron, metal
		-tepus (poss.) nu-tepus "my metal"
		cf. te- 'stone', pus (cf. pusteki "to bend", teki "to cut") 
		CN tepostli (Car.) "hierro, metal"
(SD) tepu:s-ti

(C) -teputs  					lomo (espalda)
		hump, back
		i-teputs "its back"
		cf. teputs "behind"; cf. putsua "to pile up, accumulate"
		CN tepotstli (Car.) "espalda"; PN *təpots- "back, shoulder"

(C) teputs  					detrás de
		behind
		teputs kal "behind the house" 
		ka i-teputs "backwards" 
		nu-teputsta "behind me"
		cf. -teputs "back"
		CN cf. tepotzco (Sim.) "detrás"

(C) teputs-mu:ku 				jorobado
		hunchback
		cf. teputs "back", (?) mu:ku "small shrimp"
		CN cf. teputzotli (Sim.) "jorobado"

(C) teputsu  					tordito
		bird sp., thrush (?)
		cf. teputs "back, hump"
		CN cf. teputzotli (Sim.) "jorobado"

(C) -teputs-u:mi-yu  				espinazo
		spine, backbone
		cf. teputs "back", u:mi-t "bone", -yu 'intimate poss.'
(C) -teputs-u:mi-yu

(C) teputswia (t.v.)   				poner al hombro, llevar al lomo, llevar a cucuch 
		to carry over one's shoulder
		teputswia (pres.) ni-k-te-putswia "I'm carrying it over my shoulder"
		teputswih (pret.)
		teputswih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. -teputs "back, hump", -wia 'caus.' (?)
		CN cf. (?) teputzuia (Sim.) "repetir, volver a decir una cosa"
(SD) teputswia

(C) tepuxak   					talpuja (cascajo, piedra mezclada con tierra;  							pena blanda)
		gravel, rock mixed with dirt; soft cliff
		cf. te- 'stone', pux(a:w)ak "wrinkled"
		CN tepoxactli (Sim.) "piedra ligera, porosa, especie de esponja"
(SD) tepu(:)xak

(SD) terrible(h)  				terrible, horrible
		terrible, horrible
		Sp. terrible

(C) te:ru  					entero (te:ruʔ)
		whole, entire, all 
		Sp. entero

(SD) tesahsay  				peligroso dangerous
		cf. (?) te- 'someone' 
		cf. (C) sahsayti "for hair to stand from fear"

(C) tesihkwil  					granizo
		hail
		tehtesihkwil (pl.) 
		cf. te- 'piedra', cf. sesek "cold"
(C) tesu  					no
		no
		cf. te: "no", su "if"
(SD) tesu

(SD) tesu a:kah  				nadie (tesu a:gah) 
		nobody, no one
		CN cf. aca (Sim.) "alguien"
		cf. (C) su a:kah

(C) tesu datka  				nada
		nothing
		cf. (SD) te: datka

(SD) tesu kanah  				no hay (tesu ganah) 
		there is/are not

(SD) tesu ke:man  				nunca (tesu ge:man) 
		never
		cf. tesu "no", ke:man "when"
		cf. (C) te: ke:man

(SD) tesu ki-mati  				saber, a saber (quien sabe)
		who knows (said when the speaker does not know or is uncertain what is said)
		cf. tesu "no", ki-mati "(he/she) knows it"

(C) tesu kiya  					no es asi
		it's not like that, it's not so
		cf. tesu "no", kiya "thus"

(C) tesu ne:si  					invisible
		invisible (literally: "it is not seen")
		cf. tesu "no", ne:si "to appear, be seen"

(C) tesu ta-chiya  				ciego
		blind (literally "(he/she/it) does not see") 
		cf. tesu "no", ta-chiya "to look, see"
(SD) tesu ta-chiya

(C) tesu ta-ka:ki  				sordo
		deaf (literally: "(he/she/it) does not hear") 
		cf. tesu "no", ta-ka:ki "to hear (something)"
(SD) tesu ta-kaki

(C) tesu weli taketsa 				mudo
		mute, dumb (literally: "(he/she/it) cannot speak") 
		cf. tesu "no", taketsa "to chat, to speak"
(SD) tesu weli tahtaketsa
	
(SD) tesu ye:k  				chueco, no sirve
		no good, bad, worthless
		cf. tesu "no", ye:k "good"
		cf. (C) te: ye:k

(C) te-t  					piedra
		stone, rock
		-te-w (poss.)  nu-te-w "my rock"
		tehtet (pl.) 
		cf. te- 'stone' (in compounds); tetsitsin "pebbles"; itew-tamakas "kind of beehive"
		CN tetl (Car.); PN *tə-
(SD) te-t
		tehtet (pl.) 
	
(SD) te-tal  					pedrero (donde hay mucha piedra)
		rocky place, rocky ground
		cf. te- 'stone', -ta(:)l 'place of', ta:l "ground"
		CN tetlalli (Sim.) "tierra pedregosa"
	
(SD) tete-k  					socado (firme, apretado)
		tight
		cf. te- 'stone'; cf. tetilia "to tighten"
		CN tetic (Mol.) "cosa dura como piedra"
	
(C) tetetskaliwit, tetetskaliwits  		Tetetzcaligüe (un río)
		name of a river
	
(SD) tetilia (t.v.)  				socar, amarrar bien apretado
		to tighten, to tie tightly
		tetilia (pres.)
		tetilih (pret.)
		tetilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tetek "tight", -lia 'caus.' (?)
		CN tetilia (Sim.) "endurecer una cosa, hacerle firme"
	
(SD) tetun-ti  					piedra, cuña (terrón (?))
		stone, wedge, clod (?)
		cf. te-'stone', -tun ('depreciatory-diminutive' (?))
		CN tetontli (Sim.) "piedra pequena"

(SD) tetsikwini (i.v., incorp.)  		brincar, cruzar (el río brincando de un lugar a 							otro en piedras)
		to jump, to cross the river jumping on rocks
		cf. te- 'stone', tsikwi:ni "to leap"
	
(C) te-tsitsin  					piedritas
		small stones, pebbles
		cf. te- 'stone', -tsin 'diminutive'
(SD) te-tsitsin
	
(C) -tewahka  					rodilla
		knee
		nu-tewahka "my knee"
(SD) -tewahka

(C) tewa:ki (i.v.)  				enflaquecerse, disminuirse 
		to get thin, skinny; to diminish
		tewa:ki (pres.)
		tewa:ki-k (pret.)
		tewa:k-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) te- 'stone', wa:ki "to dry" 
		cf. tewa:k-tuk "skinny"

(C) tewa:k-tuk (adj.)  				flaco, peche 
		skinny, undernourished
		cf. tewa:ki "to get skinny", -tuk 'perf.'

(C) te:wi:lu-t  					tihuilote (árbol)
		tree sp., large, soft wood, good for posts, with fruit like granadillo
(SD) te:wilu-t, tewi:lu-t

(SD) tew-ti  					polvo
		dust
		-tew (poss.) 
		CN tewtli (Car.) 
		cf. (C) teh-ti

(SD) tewtital  					polvoso dusty
		cf. tew-ti "dust", -ta(:)l 'place of' (?)

(C) -tex  					cuñado
		brother-in-law
		nu-tex "my brother-in-law
		nuhnu-tex (poss. pl.) "my brothers-in-law"
		CN te:xtli (Car.)
(C) texkal   					texcalar (regado para preparar la mezcla) 			mortar, preparations for making mortar (?)
		cf. (?) te- 'stone', (i)xkal "to roast", -l 'passive nominalization'  
		CN cf. texcalli (Sim.) "roca, lugar escarpado, horno"; texcalli (Mol.) "penasco"

(C) texkan  					garrapata 
		tick
		tehtexkan (pl.) ("garrapatero")
		CN cf. texcan (Sim.) "chinche" 
(SD) texkan

(C) te: ye:k  					malo, feo, no sirve 
		bad, no good, worthless
		cf. te: "no", ye:k "good" 
		cf. (SD) tesu ye:k

(C) te:yuk  					todavia no
		not yet
		cf. te: "no", -uk ('still, now, even, when')
(SD) te:yuk

(C, SD) ti(:)-, te-   				'fuego' (en palabras compuestas) 
		'fire' (in compounds
		cf. ti(:)-t "fire"

(C) tiahwa (t.v.)  				reganar, latir, ladrar
		to scold, to bark at
		ni-tiahwa "I scold (him)" (niti(y)ahwaʔ)
		cf. (?) te(:)- 'someone', ahwa "to scold, to bark"
(SD) tiahwa

(C) tian-a, tiyan-a    		adíos (dicho por la persona que se va o que saluda primero)
		goodbye (greeting said by the person leaving or who greets first)
		cf. tamaya "goodbye" (answer to prior "goodbye" greeting)

(SD) t-ichteki (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		robar
		to steal, to be stealing
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', ichteki "to steal"
		cf. (C) ta-chteki

(C) tiendah, ti(y)endah  			tienda  
		store
		Sp. tienda

(SD) tihera(h)  				tijeras
		scissors
		Sp. tijera(s)
		cf. (C) tiseras

(C) tihlan  					gallina 
		chicken
		-tihlan (poss.) 
		tihtihlan (pl.) 
		Sp. castillano (modern castellano)
(SD) tihlan
		tihtihlan, tihlanmet (pl.) 

(C) tihlan kiniyah  				gallina guinea (gallina de Guinea)
		guinea hen
		cf. tihlan "chicken", kiniyah "banana" (from Sp. guineo) 
(SD) tihlan kiniyah  (tihlan giniyah)

(SD) mu-tihtila:na (r.v., redup.)  		guiñarse, jalarse
		to lurch (?)
		cf. tila:na "to pull"

(C) tik  					en, de
		in, from
		tik nu-kal "in my house"
		CN cf. -c, ic "en"
(SD) tik
		tik nu-chan "in my house" (tik nuchaŋ)
		tik i-kal "in her house" (tigigál)

(SD) ti-kaxi-t  					sahumeador, incensario (de losa)
		brasier, clay incense dish
		cf. ti- 'fire', kaxi-t "dish"
		CN tlecaxitl (Sim.) "incensario" 

(C) tiki  					muy (tigi(ʔ))
		very
		tiki takwa:wak "very hard"
		tiki ka:roh "very expensive"
		CN tequi (Sim.) "mucho"

(SD) tikukuh   				ticuco (tamal de frijol, masa de maíz con  								frijoles fritos adentro) (tikukuh)		a tamale with fried beans inside cf. Sp. ticuco

(C) tikwawi-t  					tizón 
		firebrand, burning firewood
		-tikwaw (poss.) nu-tikwaw "my firebrand"
		tihtikwawit (pl.) 
		cf. ti- 'fire', kwawi-t "tree, wood"
		CN cf. tlequauitl (Mol.) "tizón"
(SD) tiwawi-t

(C) tikwi:ni (i.v.)  				tronar
		to thunder
		tikwi:ni (pres.) tikwi:ni "it is thundering"
		tikwi:ni-k (pret.)
		tikwi:n-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. tecuini (Sim.) "estar agitando, quemar, flamear"
(SD) tikwini

(SD) ti:l  					tile, tizne, carbón
		soot
		cf. ti:l-tik "black"; cf. ti:lwia "to get sooty"
		CN cf. tli:lli (Car.) "tinta"; tlilli (Sim.) "negro fino, obtenian del humo"; PN *tli:l-

(C) tila:na  					jalar
		to pull
		tila:na (pres.)
		tila:n (pret.) ni-k-tila:n "I pulled it"
		tila:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tila:wak "thick", tili:nia "to stretch"
		CN cf. tilana (Sim.) "extender, alargar, estirar algo" 
(SD) tila:na
		tila:n(-ki) (pret.)

(C) tila:wa-k  					grueso, doble
		thick, double
		tihtila:wak (pl.) 
		cf. tila:na "to pull", tili:nia "to stretch"
		CN tilauac (Sim.) "espeso, grande, amplio, macizo"
(SD) tila:wa-k

(C) tili:nia (t.v.)  				estirar
		to stretch, to pull on
		tili:nia (pres.) ni-k-tili:nia "I'm stretching it" (niktili:niyaʔ)
		tili:nih (pret.)
		tili:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) tila:na "to pull"
		CN tilinia (Sim.) "estirar, extender, alargar"

(SD) ti:l-tik  					negro
		black
		tihti:ltik (pl.) 
		cf. ti:l "soot", -tik 'adj.' cf. ti:ltiya "to turn black" 
		CN tli:ltik (Car.)
		cf. (C) ku:ti:ltik

(SD) ti:ltiya (i.v.)  				negrearse, hacerse negro
		to turn black, to become black, to blacken
		ti:ltiya (pres.)
		ti:ltiya-k (pret.)
		ti:ltiya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ti:l-tik "black", -ya 'inchoative'
		cf. ti:lwia "to get sooty"

(SD) ti:lwia (t.v.,  r.v.) 			entilar(se), ensuciar(se) o manchar(se) con tizne
		ti:lwia (pres.) ki-ti:lwia "(she) gets it sooty", 
		mu-ti:lwia "it gets sooty"
		ti:lwih (pret.)
		ti:lwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ti:l "soot", -wia 'passive/caus.' (?)

(C) ti:-maka (t.v., incorp.)  			encender, prender, darle fuego 
		to fight (fire)
		ni-k-ti:maka-k "I lighted it (the fire)"
		cf. ti:- 'fire', maka "to give" 
(SD) ti-maka 		prender, quemar
		to light, to burn

(SD) timbre(h)  				timbre 
		stamp, seal
		Sp. timbre

(C) timu:yu-t  					chispa 
		spark 
		timu:yu-tsin "small spark" (chispita) 
		cf. ti- 'fire', mu:yu:-t "gnat"
		CN tlemoyotl (Sim.) "chispa, centella"
		cf. (Sim.) temu:yu-t

(SD) tinta(h)  					tinta, color
		shade, color, tint, hue
		Sp. tinta

(SD) ti:pan  					atrás, detrás
		behind
		tihti:pan (pl.) "bastante atrás de varios" 
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', -ipan "behind"

(C) tiseras   					tijeras
		scissors
		-tiseras (poss.) nu-tiseras "my scissors" 
		tihtiseras (pl.) 
		Sp. tijeras
		cf. (SD) tihera(h)

(C) tisi (t.v., i.v.)  				moler
		to grind
		tisi (pres.) ni-tisi "I'm grinding, ni-k-tisi "I'm grinding it"
		tis-ki (pret.)
		tis-tuk (perf.)
		CN tesi (Car.); PN *tisi, *təsi
(SD) tisi

(SD) t-iskalia (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		criar
		to raise, to bring up, to be raising
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', iskalia "to raise"
		cf. (C) taiskalia

(SD) mu-tiskalia (r.v.) 			crecer
		to grow
		cf. mu- 'reflexive', t-iskalia "to raise"

(C) ti:-t  					fuego
		fire
		-ti:-w (poss.) nu-ti:-w "my fire"
		tihti:t (pl.) 
		CN tletl (Car.); PN *tlai(h)-
(SD) ti-t
		tihtit (pl.) 

(SD) titikwi:ka (i.v., redup.) 			oirse ruidos (de distancia)
		for noises to be heard (at a distance)
		titikwi:ka (pres.)
		titikwi:ka-k (pret.)
		titikwi:ka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) kwi:ka "to sing"
		CN cf. tetecuica (Sim.) "hacer ruido, crujir, crepitar"

(SD) tixkwi-t  					haragán (flojo)
		lazy
		tixkwimet (pl.) 
		cf. (?) tix-ti "corn dough", kwi "to grab"

(SD) tix-ti  					masa
		dough, corn dough
		-tix (poss.) nu-tix "my dough"
		cf. tisi "to grind"
		CN textli (sim.) "harina, cosa molida": PN *tix 
(SD) tix-ti
	
(C) ti(y)endah, tiendah    			tienda
		store
		Sp. tienda

(C, SD) tiyu(:)-, tiyuh-  			'sagrado, Dios, santo' (en palabras compuestas)            
		'holy, saint, God' (in compounds)
		CN teotl "dios, diosa, Dios"

(C) mu-tiyuchiwa (r.v., incorp.) 		persignarse
		to cross oneself
		mu-tiyuchiwa (pres.) ni-mu-tiyuchiwa "I cross myself" 
		mu-tiyuchih-ki (pret.)
		mu-tiyuchih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tiyu- 'saint, God', -chiwa "to do"
		CN cf. (mo-)teochiua (Sim.) "orar, consagrarse"

(C) ti:yuh  					tío
		uncle
		-ti:yuh (poss.) nu-ti:yuh "my uncle" 
		nu-tihti:yuh (poss. pl.) "my uncles" 
		Sp. tío
(SD) ti:yuh

(C) tiyuh-kwawi-t  				cedro
		cedar
		tihtiyuhkwawit (pl.) 
		cf. tiyuh 'holy', kwawi-t "tree"

(C) tiyu:tak  					tarde
		late, afternoon
		cf. tiyu:taki "to be late, afternoon" 
		CN cf. teotlac (Sim.) "noche despues de la puesta de sol"

(C) tiyu:taki (i.v.)  				entardecerse, estar tarde
		to become afternoon, evening, to be late
		tiyu:take (pres.)
		tiyu:tak (pret.) tiyu:taki-k-a "it's late now,  it is already evening" 
		tiyu:tak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) tiyu:- 'holy, God', aki "to enter"
		CN teotlaquia (Sim.) "hacerse tarde, estar oscuro" 
(SD) tiyu:taki

(C) tiyu:-tepe:-t  				Teotepeque (nombre de pueblo) 
		Teotepeque (town name)
		cf. tiyu:- 'holy, God', tepe:-t "mountain"

(SD) tonto  					tonto
		fool
		Sp. tonto

(C) tormentah   				huracán, tempestad 
		storm
		Sp. tormenta

(SD) trabahu(h)  				trabajo
		work
		Sp. trabajo
		cf. teki-t "work"

(SD) trampah  					trampa
		trap
		Sp. tampa

(SD) trapiche, trapichi   			trapiche cane 
		mill, sugar mill
		Sp. trapiche

(SD) tren  					tren 
		train
		Sp. tren

(SD) tres-mariyah  				tres marías (una constelación) 
		a constellation, "three-Marys"

(SD) tri(:)guh  				trigo
		wheat
		Sp. trigo

(SD) trinchera(h)  				pante de leña (medida de leña amontanada) 			measure/pile of chopped and stacked firewood 
		Sp. trinchera

(SD) tripabieha(h)  				tripa de vieja (bejuco de laso) 
		vine sp., "old woman's intestine"
		Sp. tripa vieja

(SD) -tripah-yu  				tripas, intestino
		intestine(s)
		i-tripah-yu "her intestine(s)"
		Sp. tripa, -yu 'intimate poss.'

(SD) triste(h)  					triste
		sad
		nemi triste(h) "(he/she) is sad" 
		Sp. triste

(C) tru:suh  					trozo
		block or chunk (of wood)
		tru:suh-tsín "small blck of wood" (trocito) 
		Sp. trozo
	
(C) tuchan  pueblo
		town
		-chan (poss.) nu-chan "my town" 
		cf. tu- "our", -chan "house"
		cf. (SD) te:chan

(SD) t-uchpa:na (t.v., unspec. obj.)  		barrer
		to sweep, to be sweeping
		cf. ta- 'unspec. obj.', uchpa:na "to sweep" 
		cf. (C) ta-chpa:na
	
(C) tuch-ti  					conejo
		rabbit
		-tuch (poss.) nu-tuch "my rabbit" 
		tuhtuchti (poss.) 
		CN to:chtli (Car.) 
		cf. (SD) tuch-tsin

(SD) tuch-tsin  				conejo 
		rabbit
		cf. (C) tuch-ti "rabbit", -tsin 'diminutive'
	
(SD) tu(:)h-ti  					gavilán
		hawk
		tuhtu(:)h-ti (pl.) 
		CN tlotli (Sim.) "halcon, gavilan"
	
(SD) tu(:)hti tsunchi:ltik  			granda-hueso (zopilote rey) 
		red-headed vulture
		cf. tu(:)h-ti "hawk", tsun-chi:l-tik "redheaded"
	
(C) tuhtuka  					culeca (gallina clueca)
		brooding hen
		CN cf. (?) totoca (Sim.) "correr, manar, empeorar, ir aprisa" 
	
(C) tuhtul-meka-t  				campanilla (bejuco)
		vine sp., bellflower (?)
		cf. tul- 'yellow', meka-t "vine"
(SD) tuhtul-meka-t
	
(C) tuhtuma (t.v.)  				desatar
		to untie
		tuhtuma (pres.)
		tuhtun (pret.) ni-k-tuhtun-a "I already untied it" (niktuhtunaʔ)
		tuhtun-tuk (perf.)
		CN toʔtoma (Car.) "desatar"; toma (Sim.) "desatar" PN *toma
	
(C) tuhtunwia (t.v.)  				tocar (la puerta)
		to knock
		tuhtunwia (pres.)
		tuhtunwih (pret.) ki-tuhtunwih "(she) knocked on it" (gituhtuŋwih)
		tuhtunwih-tuk (perf.)
	
(SD) tuhtux  					armadito, cochinito (cochinillo de tierra)
		sowbug, potato bug tuhtuhtux (pl.) 

(C) tu:ka (t.v.)  				enterrar, sembrar
		to bury, to plant
		tu:ka (pres.)
		tu:ka-k (pret.)
		tu:ka-tuk (perf.) ti-k-tu:ka-tiwi-t "we have planted it, we have buried him"
		cf. ta-tu:ka "to plant, to be planting"; ma:tu:ka "to touch, to feel"
		CN to:ka (Car.) "enterrar, sembrar"; PN *to:ka
(SD) tu:ka

(C) tuka-t  					arana (tukat)
		spider
		tuhtukat (pl.) 
		CN tocatl (Sim.)
(SD) tuka-t (tugat)

(SD) tu:kay  nombre name
		nu-tu:kay "my name"  (nutu:gay)
		cf. -tuka:yuh "namesake" 
		CN to:ka:itl (Car.), -to:ka: (Car). (poss.) 
		cf. (C) -tu:key

(C) -tuka:yuh  					tuque (tocayo)
		namesake, someone with the same name as the speaker 
		cf. tu:kay "name", -yuh ('abstract noun' (?))
		CN cf. tocayo (Mol.) "firmada escriptura" 
		cf. (SD) tukuh

(C) -tu:key  					nombre
		name
		nu-tu:key "my name" (nutu:geY) 
		cf. tu:keytia "to name"
		cf. tsun-tu:key "surname"
		CN to:ka:itl (Car.)
		cf. (SD) tu:kay

(C) tu:keytia (t.v.)  				nombrar
		to name
		tu:keytia (pres.)
		tu:keytih (pret.)
		tu:keytih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tu:key "name", -tia 'caus.' 
		CN tocayotia (Sim.) "nombrar"

(C) tuktia (t.v.)  				mandar, enviar (cosas)
		to send
		tuktia (pres.) ni-k-tuktia "I send it"
		tuktih (pret.)
		tuktih-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. (?) toctia (Sim.) "corregir, castigar, doblar, sostener"
(SD) tuktia

(SD) -tukuh  					tuco, tuque (tocayo)
		namesake, person with the same name as oneself
		nu-tukuh "my namesake"
		cf. tu:kay "name" 
		cf. (C) tuka:yu

(C) tu:l-in  					tule, tul tulle, cattails, reeds 
		-tu:lin (poss.) 
		CN to:llin (Car.) "espadana, juncia" 
(SD) tu:l-in
		tuhtu:lin (pl.) 

(C) tu:lin  					Tular (caserio)
		Tular, name of a hamlet
		cf. tu:lin "tulle, reeds"

(C) tul-tik  					amarillo, naranjado
		yellow, orange
		tuhtultik (pl.) 
		cf. (?) tu:l-in "tulle, cattails", -ti-k 'adj.' 
		cf. tultik-nah "yellowish"
(SD) tul-tik  	amarillo, bien maduro 
		yellow, very ripe

(C) -tulti:ka  					yema
		yolk
		i-tulti:ka teksisti "the egg's yolk" (itulti:ga teksistiʔ) 
		cf. (?) tul-tik "yellow", a:-t "water (SD)"
(SD) -tultika

(C) tultik-nah  				amarilloso, algo amarillo (amarillento)
		yellowish
		cf. tul-tik "yellow", -nah 'adj.'

(C) tulua (t.v.)  			tragar
		to swallow
		tulua (pres.)
		tuluh (pret.) ki-tuluh "(he) swallowed it" 
		tuluh-tuk (perf.)
		CN toloa (Car.)
(SD) tulua

(SD) tuluku(h)  			vano, tilunco
		vain (?)
		Sp. tuluco (?)

(SD) tulupah  				chiquito
		small, tiny

(C) tumahka (n.)  			gordura, el grueso 
		thickness
		cf. tum(a:w)ak "fat", -ka 'perf. nominalizataion' (?)

(SD) tumak  				grande, gigante
		large, big, gigantic cf. tum(a:w)ak "fat" 
		CN cf. tomactli (Sim.) "gordo"  

(C) tuma:ka-t  				creciente del río, crecido del río
		high water, swell of the river
		cf. tum(a:w)ak "fat", a:-t "water, river"
(C) -tumak-mey  	tenazas, pinzas, pulgar
		pinchers, thumb
		i-tumakmey "its pincher, his/her thumb" 
		i-tuhtumakmey (poss. pl.) "its pinchers, his thumbs"

(C) tumak-nah  			medio gordo, algo gordo 
		somewhat fat, somewhat thick
		cf. tum(a:w)ak "fat", -nah 'adj.'

(C) tuma-t  				tomate (jitomate)
		tomato
		-tuma-w (poss.) nu-tuma-w "my tomato"
		tuhtumat (pl.) 
		cf. (?) tuma:wak "fat"
		cf. tuma-tsin "small tomato" (tomatillo)
		CN tomatl (Sim.); PN *toma-
(SD) tuma-t

(C) tuma-tsin  					tomatillo
		tomato sp.,  small tomato
		cf. tuma-t "tomato", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) tuma:wa-k  				gordo
		fat
		cf. tumak- (in compounds); tumak-nah "somewhat fat" 
		cf. tuma:waya "to get/become fat"; tuma:ya "to fatten" 
		CN toma:wak (Car.) "gordo"; tomauac (Sim.) "gordo, grueso"
(SD) tuma:wa-k
		cf. tumawaltia "to fatten"

(SD) tumawaltia (t.v.)  			engordar
		to fatten
		tumawaltia (pres.)
		tumawaltih (pret.)
		tumawaltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tuma:wak "fat"; tuma:waya "to get fat, -ltia 'caus.'

(C) tuma:waya (i.v.)  				engordarse
		to get fat
		tuma:waya (pres.)
		tuma:waya-k (pret.)
		tuma:waya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tuma:wak "fat", -ya 'inchoative'; cf. tuma:ya "to fatten" 
		CN cf. tomaua (Sim.) "volverse gordo"
(SD) tuma(:)waya

(C) tuma:ya (t.v., r.v.)  			engordar(se)
		to fatten, to get fat 
		tuma:ya (pres.) ni-k-tuma:ya "I'm fattening it"
		tuma:h (pret.) ni-mu-tuma:h "I got fat, I gained weight"
		tuma:h-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. tuma:wak "fat", -ya 'inchoative' (?)
		cf. tuma:waya "to get fat"

(SD) tumbu(h)  				tumbo (una jícara muy grande)
		large gourd bowl
		Sp. tumbo
(C) tumin  					dinero, pisto
		money
		-tumin (poss.) nu-tumin "my money"
		Sp. tomin
(SD) tumin 	dinero, oro, plata, plomo
		money, gold, silver, lead

(SD) -tumpi  					ombligo
		navel, bellybutton
		nu-tumpi "my navel" (nutumpiʔ)

(C) tu:nah  					tuna
		prickly pear cactus fruit 
		Sp. tuna

(C) tu:nal  					sol
		sun
		cf. tu:nal "alter-ego"
		cf. tutu:nik "hot", tutu:nia "to heat", tutu:niya "to get hot"
		CN cf. tonalli (Sim.) "calor del sol, arder"; cf. tonatiuh (Mol.) "sol"; PN (poss.) to:nal
(SD) tu:nal

(C) tu:nal  			el tunal de alguien, el espíritu de uno (tonal, nagual, alma)
		one's spirit, soul, companion spirit, alter-ego, nagual
		-tu:nal (poss.) i-tu:nal "his alter-ego"
		tuhtu:nal (pl.) 
		cf. tu:nal "sun"
		CN tonalli (Sim.) "el alma, espíritu, natividad, lo que es destinado a alguien"
(SD) tu:nal

(C) tu:nalku  				verano, canicula  (tu:nalkuʔ)
		summer, dry season, pause in the rains in the rainy season (dog days)  
		cf. tu:nal "sun", -ku 'locative', "in"
		CN tonalco (Sim.) "en verano"
(SD) tu:nalku

(SD) tu:nal-miki (i.v., incorp.) 	marchitarse (morirse plantas de calor) 
		to wither, for plants to die of heat
		cf. tu:nal "sun", miki "to die"
		CN cf. tonalmiqui (Sim.) "morir de calor, estar caldeado, quemado"

(SD) tu:nal-mí:l  			milpa de apante, tunalmil (milpa de verano)
		summer cornfield, corn planted in summer (?)
		cf. tu:nal "sun", mi:l "milpa"

(C) mu-tu:naltatia (r.v., incorp.)  		asolearse
		to sun, to lie/sit in the sun
		mu-tu:naltatia (pres.) ni-mu-tu:naltatia "I'm sunning myself" 
		mu-tu:naltatih (pret.)
		mu-tu:naltatih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tu:nal "sun", tatia "to burn"
		cf. (SD) mu-tu:nalwia

(SD) mu-tu:nalwia (r.v.)  			asolearse
		to sun, to lie/sit in the sun
		mu-tu:nalwia (pres.)
		mu-tu:nalwih(-ki) (pret.)
		mu-tu:nalwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tu:nal "sun", -wia 'passive/caus.' (?)
		cf. (C) mu-tu:naltatia

(C) tu-na:n-tsin  				la Virgen
		the Virgin, Virgin Mary
		cf. tu- "our", na:n "mother", -tsin 'diminutive/reverential" 
		CN  tonantzin (Sim.) "diosa de la tierra,  Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe"

(C) tuna:ntsin tuhtul  				una campanilla (bejuco)
		vine sp., bellflower sp. (?)
		cf. tu-na:n-tsin "the Virgin", (?) tul- 'yellow', cf. tuhtulmeka-t "vine sp."

(C) tu:ntu:n  					concha shell 
		-tu:ntu:n (poss.) i-tu:ntu:n "his/her/its shell" 
		tuhtu:ntu:n (pl.) 
		cf. Quiché tu:n "conch trumpet" (and in other Mayan languages)
(SD) tu:ntu:nm	tontón, concha del mar
		conch shell

(SD) -tupil  					bordón
		staff, cane
		i-tupil "his staff" nu-tupil "my cane" 
		CN to:pi:lli (Car.) "vara";  topilli (Sim.) "bastón, vara de la justicia"

(C) tupuk  					a gatas
		on all fours, crawling
		ni-yaw tupuk "I'm going on all fours"
		ni-ya:h-ki tupuk "I went crawling"

(SD) turkah  					mujer extranjera
		foreign woman
		Sp. turca

(SD) turuh  					toro, buey, res, vaca
		bull, ox, head of cattle, cow
		tuhturuh (pl.) 
		cf. turuhchin "calf"
		Sp. toro

(SD) turuh-chín   				ternero
		calf
		Sp. toro "bull, cow", -tsin/-chin 'diminutive'

(C) -tuskak  					garganta
		throat
		nu-tuskak "my throat"
		CN tozcatl (Sim.) "voz, garganta"; toskitl (Car.) "voz, garganta"
(SD) -tuskak

(C) tuskatan  					alero de una casa (hoyo o hueco en la casa)
		nook, cranny
		cf. -tuskak "throat", -tan 'place of'
		CN cf. (?) -tozcatlan (Sim.) "en la garganta, el se casa"

(C) tu-tah-tsin  				Nuestro Señor, Jesucristo
		Our Lord, Jesus Christ
		cf. tu- "our", tah ('father'), -tsin 'diminutive/reverential'

(C) tu-tah-wan  			señor (con respeto), viejo (término de hablar a alguien)
		'sir' (term of address for old men, respectful)
		cf. tu- "our", tah ('father'), -wan 'poss. pl.'

(SD) tutano(h)  				tutano, tuetano
		marrow
		Sp. tutano

(C) tu-te:ku  					Padre, Dios (tute:guʔ)
		the Father, God
		cf. tu- "our", te:ku "father"

(C) tu:tumuch  				tusa (camisa de la mazorca)
		corn husk
		tuhtu:tumuch (pl.) 
		CN cf. totomochtli (Sim.) "hojas secas de la planta de maiz"; PN *to:tomoch
(SD) tutu:much

(C) tutu:nia (t.v.)  				calentar
		to heat
		tutu:nia (pres.)
		tutu:nih (pret.) ni-k-tutu:nih "I heated it"
		tutu:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tutu:nik "hot", tutu:niya "to get hot"
		CN totonia (Sim.) "calentarse, tener calor"
(SD) tutu:nia

(C) tutu:ni-k  					caliente, calor (del sol)
		hot, heat (of the sun)
		cf. tu:nal "sun"; tutu:nia "to heat", tutu:niya "to get hot"; cf. tutu:nka:yu-t "fever"
		CN totonqui (Sim.) "caliente"

(SD) tutu:ni-k  				caliente, calentura
		hot, heat
		cf. a:-t tutu:n "hot water"

(C) tutu:niya (i.v.)  				calentarse
		to get warm, to heat up
		tutu:niya (pres.)
		tutu:niya-k (pret.)
		tutu:niya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tutu:ni-k "hot", -ya 'inchoative' cf. tu:nal "sun"; tutu:nia "to heat" 
		CN totonia (Sim.) "calentarse"

(C) tutu:nka:yu-t  				fiebre, calentura
		fever
		cf. tutu:nik "hot", -a:-yu "liquid" (?) 
		CN cf. totoncayotl (Sim.) "calor natural"

(C) tutupuch  					totoposte (clase de pan o tortilla muy dura, de 							masa gruesa y dura, no palmeada)
		a kind of very hard bread or tortilla made from thick corn dough, not patted
		CN cf. totopochtli (Sim.) "tostado"

(SD) tu:tu-t  					pájaro
		bird
		tuhtu:tut (pl.) 
		CN to:to:tl (Car.); PN *to:to:-

(SD) tu:tu-t karpintero(h)  			pájaro carpintero
		woodpecker
		cf. tu:tu-t "bird", Sp. carpintero

(SD) tuts-tsin  					armado (armadillo (?))
		armadillo (?)
		-tutstsin (poss.) 
		cf. -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN cf. ayotochtli (Sim.) ('armadillo')

(SD) tuwa:pan  				RÍo Tepechata 
		Tepechata River (name of the river which goes through Santo Domingo de Guzman)
		cf. tu- "our", a:pan "river"

(C) -tu:xih  					estómago 
		stomach
		-tu:xih (poss.) nu-tu:xih "my stomach"
		CN cf. toxic (Mol.) "el ombligo", toxillan (Mol.) "en la barriga"

(SD) tuxih  					tripas, intestinos
		intestines

(C) tux-ti  					tortuga
		turtle
		tuhtuxti (pl.) 
		tux-tsin "small turtle" (tuhtuxtsin (pl.))
		CN cf. (?) ayotochtli (Sim.) ('armadillo') (from ayo-tl "turtle" + toch-tli "rabbit")

(SD) twayah  					toalla
		towel
		Sp. toalla

(C) tyupan, t(i)yupan  				iglesia (tyupan)
		church
		tyuhtyupan (pl.) 
		cf. tiyu- 'holy, saint, God', -pan 'locative' 
		CN teopan (Car.); teopan (Sim.) "templo"
(SD) tyu:pan, t(i)yupan
		tyuhtyu:pan (pl.)

TS
	
(C) -tsahka  					tapadera
		lid, cover
		i-tsahka "its lid"
		cf. tsakwa "to close, to cover", -ka 'perf. nominalaization' 
		cf. -te:ntsahka "plug, cork"
		CN cf. tzaccayotl (Sim.) "tapadera, tapón"
(SD) -tsahka
		i-tsahka ne ku:mi-t "the pot's lid"
	
(C) tsah-tuk (adj.)  				tapado
		closed, covered
		cf. tsakwa "to close, to cover", -tuk 'perf.'

(SD) tsahtsalia (t.v., applic. (?))  		llamar
		to call to
		tsahtsalia (pres.)
		tsahtsalih-tuk (pret.)
		cf. tsahtsi "to shout", -lia 'applic.' (?) 
		CN cf. tzatzilia (Sim.) "llamar a alguien"
	
(C) tsahtsi (i.v.)  				gritar
		to shout
		tsahtsi (pres.) ni-tsahtsi "I'm shouting" 
		tsahtsi-k (pret.)
		tsahtsi-tuk (perf.)
		CN tsaʔtsi (Car.) "gritar"; PN *tlahtsɨ/*tsahtsɨ
(SD) tsahtsi
		cf. tsahtsalia "to call to"
	
(C) tsak-tuk (n.) 				preso
		prisoner
		tsahtsaktuk (pl.) 
		cf. tsakwa "to close", -tuk 'perf.'
	
(C) tsakwa (t.v., r.v.)  				cerrar(se), tapar(se)
		to close, to shut, to cover
		tsakwa (pres.) ni-k-tsakwa "I  close it", mu-tsakwa "it closes"
		tsak (pret.) ki-tsak-ki-ya "(she) already closed it"
		tsak-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsahka "lid", tsahtuk "plug", tsaktuk "prisoner"
		CN tsakwa (Car.); PN *tsakwa
(SD) tsakwa
		tsak (pret.)  ki-tsak-a "(she) already closed it" (gitsagaʔ)
	
(C) -tsa:lan (sustantivo relacional) 		entre medio, en medio
		between, among, in the middle of (relational noun) 
		i-tsa:lan "in the middle of it"
		tu-tsa:lan "between us"
		CN -tzalan (Sim.) "entre, en medio de"
(SD) -tsa:lan

(C) tsala:ni (i.v.)  				tronar
		to thunder
		tsala:ni (pres.)
		tsala:ni-k (pret.)
		tsala:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (SD) tsa:lani "resonar"

(SD) tsa:lani (i.v.)  				resonar, sonar (como el golpe de una cubeta que 							resuena)
		to resound, to clank (like banging a bucket)
		tsa:lani (pres.)
		tsa:lani-k (pret.)
		tsa:lan-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) tsala:ni "to thunder"

(C) tsana-t  					zanate
		bird sp., grackel
		tsahtsanat (pl.) 
		CN tzanatl (Sim.) "pájaro negro de pico encorvado"
(SD) tsana-t

(C) tsapa-tsin  					bajito
		very short person
		cf. -tsin 'diminutive'; cf. chapachin
		CN cf. tzapatl (Sim.) "enano", tzapatzin (Sim.) "enanito"

(C) tsapalua (i.v. (?))  				bajarse zapatoncito, bajarse
		to get down (like a dwarf (?)), to lower oneself
		tsapalua (pres.) (also: tsapa:lua)
		tsapaluh (pret.)
		tsapaluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsapa-tsin "very short person", -lua 'passive/ (?)
		CN cf. tzapaton, tzapatzin (Sim.) "enano"

(C) tsapu-t  					zapote
		zapote (fruit, tree)
		-tsapu (poss.) nu-tsapu "my zapote"
		tsahtsaput (pl.) 
		cf. chiktsapu-t "chiczapote"
		cf. chi:ltik tsapu-t "custard apple" (anona)
		cf. istak tsapu-t "white custard apple" (anona blanca) 
		cf. mu:yutsa "persimmon-like fruit"
		cf. na:watsa "matasano"
		CN tzapotl (Sim.) "zapote"; PN *tsapo-
(SD) tsapu-t
		cf. ulutsapu-t "a zapote sp." (uluzapote, sunza)
		cf. mu:yutzapu-t "persimmon-like fruit"
		cf. na:watsapu-t "matasano"
		cf. tsapuyu:luh "zapote pit"

(C) tsaputan  					Ishuatán (nombre de lugar) 
		Ishuatan (place name)
		cf. tsaputantekamet "people of Ishuatan" 
		cf. tsapu-t "zapote", -tan 'locative'

(C) tsaputantekamet  				gente de Ishaután
		people of/from Ishuatan
		cf. tsaputan "Ishuatan", -teka ('-ite'), -met 'pl.'

(SD) tsapuyu:luh  				hueso de zapote
		zapote pit, zapote seed
		cf. tsapu-t "zapote", -yu:lu "heart"

(C) tsatsas  					alzadero
		storage bin, place for storage

(C) tsa:wa (t.v., i.v.)  				tejer
		to weave
		(note: only appears in present tense) 
		ki-tsa:wa "she is weaving it", "she weaves it" ni-tsa:wa "I'm weaving"
		CN tzaua (Sim.) "hilar"; PN *tsa:wa "to twist/make thread" 
		cf. (SD) tsa:wa "to make clothes"

(SD) tsa:wa (i.v.)  				hacer ropa (hilar, tejer (?))
		to make clothes (to weave (?)
		tsa:wa (pres.) ni-tsa:wa "I'm making clothes"
		tsa:w-ki (pret.)
		tsa:w-tuk (perf.)
		CN tzaua (Sim.) "hilar"; PN *tsa:wa "to twist/make thread" 
		cf. (C) tsa:wa "to weave"

(C) tsa:wal  					telaraña
		spider web, cobweb
		i-tsa:wal tuka-t "the spider's web"
		cf. tsa:wa "to weave", -l 'passive nominalization'
		cf. (SD) i-te:na:yu tuka-t

(C) tsaya:na (t.v.)  				romper, rajar
		to tear, to split
		tsaya:na (pres.)
		tsaya:n (pret.)  ni-k-tsaya:n "I split it"
		tsaya:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-tsahtsaya:na "to be tearing (something)"; kwatsaya:na "to split someone's 				forehead"
		CN tzayana (Sim.) "romper, cortar" 
(SD) tsaya:na 		rajar
		to split
		tsaya:n(-ki) (pret.)
		cf. ta-tsaya:na "to split (something)"; kwatsaya:na "to hit (someone) in the forehead"
		cf. tsaya:n-tuk "slit, groove"

(SD) tsaya:n-tuk (n.)  				ranura groove, split, slit
		cf. tsaya:na "to split", -tuk 'perf.'

(C) tsehtselua (t.v.)  				sacudir
		to shake
		tsehtselua (pres.) ki-tsehtselua "I shake him/her/it" 
		tsehtseluh (pret.)
		tsehtseluh-tuk (perf.)
		CN tzetzeloa (Sim.) "sacudir, agitar"; PN *tsəlowa
(SD) tsehtselua 	sacudir, menear, zarandear
		to shake, to stir, to winnow, to sift

(C) tsihkwawi-t  				quebracho, cicahuite (árbol)
		tree sp., quebracho (very hard wood) 
		tsihtsihkwawit (pl.) 
		cf. kwawi-t "tree"
		CN cf. (?) tzictli (Sim.) "goma, resina" ('chicle') 
(SD) mu-tsihkwilua (r.v.)  andar a tientas, pararse en puntillas para alcanzar algo (empinarse)
		to walk by feeling one's way, to stand on tiptoes to reach something
		mu-tsihkwilua (pres.)
		mu-tsihkwiluh (pret.)
		mu-tsihkwiluh-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. tzicuiliui (Mol.) "pararse muy flaco, tollirse ('tullirse')

(SD) tsihtsi:kat-kal  				hormiguero
		ant's nest
		cf. tsi:ka-t "ant", kal "house"

(SD) tsihtsikwi:ni (i.v., redup.)  		estar brincando, andar brincando 
		to be jumping, hopping, to go along jumping, hopping 
		tsihtsikwi:ni (pres.)
		tsihtsikwi:ni-k (pret.)
		tsihtsikwi:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsikwi:ni "to jump"
		CN cf. tzitzicuini (Sim.) "ser listo, rapido, activo"

(C) tsihtsintia (t.v., redup.)  			comenzarlos
		to begin (iterative)
		cf. tsintia "to begin"
(SD) tsihtsintia

(SD) tsi:ka-t  					hormiga (tsi:gat)
		ant
		tsihtsi:kat (pl.) 
		cf. tsihtsi:kat-kal "ant's nest" 
		CN tzicatl (Mol.); PN *tsi:ka-

(C) tsikmu:yu  				chismuyo, chijuyo, chijmuyo (un pájaro negro) 		bird sp., black (it sings: "tsikmu:yu, tsikmu:yu")
(SD) tsikmuyu

(C) tsikpa 					rigua (tortilla o tamal de elote tierno) 
		tortilla or tamale made of immature corn
		CN cf. (?) tzictli (Sim.) "goma, resina"

(C) tsi:kuwas  					peine
		comb
		-tsi:kuwas (poss.) nu-tsi:kuwas "my comb"
		tsihtsi:kuwas (pl.) 
		cf. tsikwastia "to comb"
		CN tziquauaztli (Sim.) ; PN *tsik(w)awa:s (?)
(SD) tsiku:was

(SD) tsikwastia (t.v., r.v.)  			peinar(se)
		to comb
		tsikwastia (pres.)
		tsikwastih (pret.) ni-mu-tsikwastih "I combed (myself)", ni-k-tsikwastih "I combed 			him/her/it"
		tsikwastih-tuk (perf.) 
		cf. tsiku:was "comb" 
		CN cf. tziquauazuia

(C) tsikwi:ni (i.v.)  				brincar, saltar
		to jump, to leap
		tsikwi:ni (pres.) ni-tsikwi:ni "I jump"
		tsikwi:ni-k (pret.)
		tsikwi:n-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. tzicuini (Sim.) "salpicar, brotar (liquido)" 
(SD) tsikwi:ni
		cf. tsihtsikwi:ni "to be jumping"

(SD) tsilini (i.v.)  				repicar (campana)
		to ring (of bells)      
		tsilini (pres.)
		tsilini-k (pret.)
		tsilin-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-tsilinia "to resound, to ring"
		CN tzilini (Sim.) "sonar, resonar, hablando de metal"; PN *tsili:nV
		cf. (C) ta-tsili:nia

(SD) -tsim-bankuh-yu  			rabadilla (el hueso de la nalga)
		tailbone
		i-tsimbankuh-yu "his tailbone"
		cf. -tsin "buttocks, rump", Sp. banco, -yu 'intimate poss.' 

(C, SD) -tsin, -chin 				(suffix) 'diminutivo, reverencial'
		'diminutive, reverential' (suffix)
		-tsi(n)tsin, -chi(n)chin (pl.) 
		CN -tzin (Sim.)

(C, SD) tsin  					'nalga, base, ano' (en palabras compuestas)
		backside, buttocks, rump, arse; base, bottom ' (in compounds) 
		CN tzintli (Sim.) "ano, colon, base, cimiento"

(C) tsina:kan  					murcielago (tsina:gaŋ)
		tsihtsina:kan (pl.) 
		CN tzinacan (Sim.); PN *tsina:kan
(SD) tsina:kan

(SD) tsina:kan  				un bejuco con raices como patas de murciélago
		vine sp., vine with roots like a bat's feet
		cf. tsina:kan "bat"

(C) -tsin-ahpan  				refajo (ya no se usa)
		short skirt or sash worn over skirt (no longer used)
		-tsin-ahpan "her sash/skirt"
		cf. tsin 'buttocks'

(SD) mu-tsin-a:paka (r.v., incorp.) 		lavarse las nalgas 
		to wash one's backside
		cf. tsin 'backside', mu-a:paka "to wash"
(C) tsin-e:-t 					frijol de milpa, frijol de maíz 
		"cornfield bean"  
		tsihtsin-e:t (pl.) (tsihtsiŋe:t)
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, base', e-t "bean"
		cf. (SD) sin-e:-t

(C) tsine:wa (t.v.)  				hachar palos, rozar palos, botar palos/cosas 			(cortar o tumbar árboles)
		to cut down trees, to clear land of trees
		tsine:wa (pres.)
		tsine:h (pret.) ni-k-tsine:h "I cut it" (lo hache)
		tsine:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsin 'base'
		CN cf. tzineua "arrancar, destruir"
(SD) tsine:wa
		tsine:w(-ki) (pret.)
		tsine:w-tuk (perf.)

(SD) tsine:wil-in  				chacuate (clase de saltamonte)
		grasshopper sp.
		tsihtsine:wilin (pl.) 
		cf. (?) tsine:wa "to cut down trees", -in 'absolutive'

(SD) -tsinkach-yu  				xinga, posol, chingaste (asiento, sedimento) 			dregs, grounds
		i-tsinkach-yu "its grounds"
		cf. (?) tsin 'bottom', -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) tsin-kal  					rincón
		corner
		tsihtsin-kal (pl.) 
		cf. tsin 'base, bottom, buttocks', kal "house"

(C) tsinka:lach  				sin nalga (con las nalgas planas) 
		flat-rumped, flat buttocks
		cf. tsin 'buttocks
		cf. (SD) tsinmahma:lach

(SD) tsin-kamak  				nalga (tiŋgamak) 
		buttocks, rump, backside 
		-tsinkamak (poss.) nu-tsinkamak "my rump"
		tsihtsinkamak (pl.) 
		cf. tsin 'buttocks', -kamak "cheek"
		cf. (C) -tsintamal

(SD) tsin-kekex  			mujer sin formalidad, mujer promiscua (tsiŋgegex)
		promiscuous woman (prostitute (?))
		cf. tsin 'butt, ass', kekex-ti "a plant that causes itching"

(C) tsin-ketsa (t.v., incorp.)  			levantar, parar (parar de punta, como un tronco, 							de un extremo)      
		to stand on end
		tsinketsa (pres.) ki-tsinketsa "I stand it (on its base)" (gitsingestsaʔ)
		tsinkets-ki (pret.)
		tsinkets-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsin 'base, bottom, backside', ketsa "to lift, to stand" 
(SD) tsin-ketsa (t.v., incorp.) 	parar (de punta, de un extremo, como un tronco), copularse con
					to stand on end, to copulate with
		cf. tsin 'base, bottom, buttocks', ketsa "to stand, to lift" 
		CN tzinquetza (Sim.) "ponerse la mujer a manera de perra o de otro animal, para que 			el varón tenga parte con ella, tener parte y tomarse el varon y la mujer a manera 			de brutos"

(C) -tsinkuhku    		sinchucuyo (parte de la espalda de la rabadilla para abajo )
		small of the back and tailbone
		nu-tsinkuhku "my small-of-the-back"
(SD) -tsinkuhku (tsiŋguhkuʔ)

(C) tsin-ku:ma:tsah 				piñuela (mata de piña)
		pineapple plant
		cf. tsin 'base, bottom', ku:ma:tsah "piña"

(C) mu-tsin-ku:ti:ya (r.v., incorp.)	rendirse de estar sentado (cansarse de estar sentado) 
		to tire of sitting 
		mu-tsinku:ti:ya (pres.) 
		mu-tsinku:ti:ya-k (pret.) 
		mu-tsinku:ti:ya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsin 'backside, rump', ku:ti:ya "to tire"

(C) tsin-kutu:na (t.v., incorp.)  		trozar bajo en el tronco, cortar algo con asiento
		to cut the bottom or base of something, e.g. a tree trunk
		ni-k-tsinkutu:na "I cut it low, at the bottom/base"
		cf. tsin 'base, bottom', kutu:na "to cut" 
(SD) tsin-kutu:na

(C) tsinkuya   					sincuyo, sincuya (clase de anona) 
		anona or custard apple sp.
		cf. (?) tsin 'buttocks, base'
(SD) tsinkuya (tsinguyaʔ)

(SD) tsin-mahma:lach  			sin nalga (persona que no tiene nalga) 
		flat-rumped, flat buttocks
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, rump', ma:lachua "to flatten"
		cf. (C) tsinka:lach

(SD) tsinmaxak				tijera, tijerilla (insecto) (palabra obscena) 
		earwig (obscene word)
		cf. tsin "buttocks", maxak "groin"

(SD) tsin-mu-es-tuk  				acurrucado en cuclillas
		squatting, crouching
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, base', mu- 'reflexive', es-tuk "seated" 
		cf. (C) tsin-mu-ets-tuk

(C) tsin-mu-ets-tuk  				acurrucado
		squatting, crouching
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, base', mu- 'reflexive', ets-tuk "seated" 
		cf. (SD) tsin-mu-es-tuk

(SD)  mu-tsin-na:maka (r.v., incorp.)  	vender la mujer su cuerpo (ser prostituta)  								(mutsinna:magaʔ)
		to be a prostitute
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, ass', na:maka "to sell"
		CN tzinnamaca (Sim.) "prostituirse, venderse (mujer)"

(C) tsinnanats  				nalgona
		woman with big buttocks
		tsihtsinnanatsmet (pl.) (tsihtsiŋnanatsmet)
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, rump'
		CN cf. nanatzoa (Sim.) "volverse gordo"

(C) tsin-nex  					sucio de las nalgas (tsiŋnex)
		dirty backside, dirty butt
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, backside', nex-nah "dirty, dusty"
		cf. (SD) tsinsu:su:l

(SD) tsinsu:su:l  				sucio de las nalgas
		dirty backside, dirty butt 
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, backside' 
		CN cf. cocolli (Sim.) "suciedad, basura"
		cf. (C) tsin-nex

(C) mu-tsin-ta:lia (r.v., incorp.)  		sentarse, ir sentado, 
		acurrucarse
		to squat down, to crouch, to waddle
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, base', mu-ta:lia "to sit" 
(SD) mu-tsin-ta:lia
(C) tsin-ta:lmats-nah  				sucio de las nalgas
		dirty backside, dirty butt
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, rump', ta:lmats-nah "dirty" 
		cf. tsin-nex "dirty butt"
		cf. (SD) tsinsu:su:l

(C) -tsin-tamal  				nalga
		buttocks, backside, rump
		i-tsintamal "his/her rump"
		i-tsihtsintamal (poss. pl.) "his/her/(their) rumps" 
		cf. tsin 'buttocks', tamal "tortilla"
		cf. (SD) tsin-kamak

(C)  tsin-temultia (t.v.)  			rebajar, retroceder (ir en retroceso, reverso)
		to go backwards, to reverse, to come back down
		ki-tsintemultia "(he/she) is coming back down"
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, base, bottom', temultia "to lower, to get down"

(C) -tsinte-w  					molleja
		gizzard
		i-tsinte-w "its gizzard"
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, base', te- 'stone', -w 'poss.'
(SD) -tsinte-w

(C) -tsinteyu, i-tsinteyu ikxi  			carcañal, talón
		heel, heelbone
		cf. (?) tsin 'base, bottom', e- 'stone', -yu  'intimate poss.' 
		CN cf. (?) tzinteyo "provista de su cepa, de su gleba"

(C) tsintia (t.v.)  				empezar, comenzar
		to begin
		tsintia (pres.)
		tsintih (pret.)
		tsintih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsihtsintia "to begin them (iterative)"
		cf. (?) tsin 'base, bottom, rump', -tia 'caus.'
		CN tzintia (Sim.) "empezar"

(C) tsintiseras  				tijereta (pájaro)
		bird sp., flycatcher (?)
		cf. tsin 'butt, backside', Sp. tiseras "scissors"          

(C) tsintukia (t.v.)  				atizar (el fuego)
		to poke, to stir, to stoke the fire
		tsintukia (pres.) ni-k-tsintukia "I'm stoking it"
		tsintukih (pret.)
		tsintukih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) tsin 'buttocks, base'
		CN cf. toquia (Sim.) "atizar el fuego"

(SD) tsin-tuma:wak 				 nalgón, nalgona
		person with big buttocks
		cf. tsin 'buttocks', tuma:wak "fat"

(SD) -tsin-u:mi-yu  				cadera
		hip, hipbone
		cf. tsin 'buttocks, rump, backside', u:mi-t "bone", -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) tsi:pi-t  			peche, tierno (maíz inmaduro, bebé) (el nino menor cuando 					nace otro o cuando su mamá está embarasada; un hombre que 					lo domina su esposa, uno que solo suena)
		infant, tender, immature; the youngest child of a woman who is pregnant, or, whose 			mother has given birth to another baby; a hen-pecked man; immature corn; one 			who dreams all the time
		i-tsi:pi-yu "her baby, her youngest child"
		tsihtsi:pit (pl.) 
		CN cf. tzipitl (Sim.) "niño enfermo a causa de la leche que toma"; tzipitl  (Mol.) "la 			criatura que está enferma o desganada a causa de estar su madre preñada"

(C) tsi:pitamal  				tortilla de camahua (tortilla de maiz nuevo) 
		tortilla made from new corn/immature corn
		cf. tsi:pi-t "tender, immature", tamal "tortilla"

(C) tsi:-t  					chicharrita pequeña
		small cicada sp. tsihtsi:t (pl.) 
		CN cf. (?) tzitzitl (Sim.) "especie de turquesas de inferior calidad"

(C) tsitsi:kas  					chichicaste (ortiga)
		stinging nettle
		CN tzitzicaztli (Sim.) "ortiga"
(SD) tsitsi:kas (tsitsi:gas)

(C) tsitsi:ka-tuk (adj.)  			silencioso
		silent, quiet
		cf. tsitsi:kaya "to be quiet", -tuk 'perf.'

(C) tsitsi:kaya (i.v.)  				silenciarse, estar silencio
		to be quiet, to become silent
		tsitsi:kaya (pres.)
		tsitsi:kaya-k (pret.) tsitsi:kaya-k "it got quiet"
		tsitsi:kaya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsitsi:ka-tuk "silent, quiet", -ya 'inchoative' (?)
(SD) tsitsikwihyak  				tujo (tufo) de zopilote (el mal olor del zopilote)
		cf. ihyak "smell, stink"
		cf. (C) tsitsiwihyak

(C) tsitsimikwawi-t  				sisimite (árbol)
		tree sp., about ten meters high, with a sour fruit like hogplums, which are eaten by 			ring-tailed cats (mico león)
		cf. tsitsimi-t "demon", kwawi-t "tree"

(SD) tsitsimi-t  			el demonio, el sisimite, el sombrerón (ser sobrenatural)
		demon, headless horseman, a supernatural being
		tsihtsitsimit (pl.) 
		CN tzitzimitl (Sim.) "diablo, demonio, habitante del aire"

(C) tsitsinaka  				cosa que relumbra, que brilla (p. ej. un puño de brasas)
		shining, glittering, sparkling, something that flashes off and on
(SD) tsisinaka

(C) tsitsi:n-tik  				tieso, duro
		stiff, hard
		-ti-k 'adj.'
(SD) tsitsi:n-tik 	duro, tieso, almidonado
		hard, stiff, starched

(C) tsitsinua (t.v.) 				 pedacear
		to cut or break into pieces
		tsitsinua (pres.) ni-k-tsitsinua "I'm breaking it into pieces"
		tsitsinuh (pret.)
		tsitsinuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) 'buttocks, base', -ua 'passive/caus.'

(C) tsitsiwihyak  		el tufo del zopilote (mal olor del zopilote), el sumo, almizcloso
		vulture's stench
		cf. (SD) tsitsikwihyak

(C) tsuhtsuntamehtia (t.v., redup.) 		sacarles punta, hacerlos puntiagudos
		to sharpen, to make points (pl.), to make (things) pointed
		tsuhtsuntamehtia (pres.)
		tsuhtsuntamehtih (pret.) (?)
		tsuhtsuntamehtih-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. tsun-tameh "pointed, sharp", -tia 'caus.'

(SD) -tsuhtsun-yu  				cejas, pestanas
		eyebrow, eyelashes
		nu-tsuhtsun-yu "my eyebrow, my eyelashes" cf. tsun- 'hair', -yu 'intimate poss.'
		CN cf. tzotzonyo (Mol.) "lleno de pelos asperos";  tzotzonyo (Sim.) "velludo"
(C) tsu(:)hyak 				humo de lo chamuscado, lo quemado, mal olor de 
		carne quemada 
		cf. (i)hyak "smell"
		cf. (SD) su:hyak

(C) tsukul  					chibola, chipote (chichón)
		lump, bump, knot
		CN cf. (?) tzocatl (Sim.) "verruga, puerro"

(C) tsukul-tik  					espeso
		thick (of liquids)
		cf. tsukul "lump"
(SD) tsukul-tik  (tsugultik)

(C) mu-tsukulua (r.v.)  			acurrucarse 
		to squat, to crouch 
		mu-tsukulua (pres.) 
		mu-tsukuluh (pret.) 
		mu-tsukulih-tuk
		cf. tsukul "lump, bump, knot", -ua 'passive/caus.'

(C) tsukunawi  				hipo
		hiccough
		tsuhtsukunawi (several people with hiccoughs) 
		CN cf. tzicunoliztli (Mol.)
(SD) tsukunawi (tsugunawiʔ)

(SD) tsu:lah  					nigua, sula
		chigger, small flea cf. 
(SD) tsu:lan

(C) tsu:lan  					nigua 
		chigger, small flea 
		tsuhtsu:lan (pl.) 
		cf. (SD) tsu:lah

(SD) tsuma (t.v.)  				coser, costurar
		to sew
		tsuma (pres.)
		tsun-ki (pret.) ni-k-tsun-ki "I sewed it" 
		tsun-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-tsuma "to be sewing"
		CN tzoma (Sim.) "coser"; PN *tsoma
		cf. (C) ihtsuma

(SD) -tsum-bankuh-yu   			rabadilla
		tailbone, rump and tailbone
		cf. tsun "point, top", bankuh "bench", -yu 'intimate poss.

(C) -tsum-bune:te  				copete (de pájaro)
		tuft on bird's head
		i-tsumbune:te "its tuft" (itsumbune:teʔ)
		cf. tsun- 'head, hair', Sp. bonete

(SD) tsum-pahsul  				con el pelo alborotado (despeinado)
		with messed-up hair, unkempt
		cf. tsun- 'hair', ku:pahsul "unkempt, gargage"
		CN tzompacolli (Sim.) "cabellos despeinados, despeinado"

(C) mu-tsum-pa:ka (r.v., incorp.)  		lavarse la cabeza
		to wash one's head
		cf. tsun- 'head, hair', pa:ka "to wash" 

(SD) tsumpalachu  				una lagartija
		lizard sp.
		cf. tsun- 'head'

(C)  -tsumpan   		encima de, en la punta, en la cumbre (sustantivo relacional)
		on, on top of, on the summit (relational noun)
		i-tsumpan "on top of it"
		nu-tsumpan "on top of me, on my head"
		cf. tsun- 'head, hair', -pan 'locative'
(SD) -tsumpan  

(C) tsum-pe:peta (t.v., incorp.) 		 despulgar (espulgar)
		to deflea, to delouse, to clean someone's head, to look for fleas/lice
		tsumpe:peta (pres.)
		tsumpe:pet-ki (pret.) ni-k-tsumpe:pet-ki-ya "I already deloused him"
		tsumpe:pet-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsun- 'head, hair', pe:peta "to search"

(SD) tsum-pe:suh  				calvo
		bald
		ni-tsumpe:suh "I'm bald"
		cf. tsun- 'hair, head', (?) pe:suh "colón, peso (money)"

(C) tsum-pilua (t.v.)  				poner cabeza abajo
		to put upside-down
		ni-k-tsumpilua "I put him/her/it upside down" 
		cf. tsun- 'head', pilua "to hang"
		CN cf. piloa (Sim.) "colgarse, caer, derramarse desde lo alto"

(SD) tsum-pilua  				poner cabeza abajo, agachar
		to put upside-down, to crouch, to bend over"

(C) tsumpu:pu  				zompopo (clase de hormiga grande)
		ant sp., large
		tsuhtsumpu:pu (pl.) 
		cf. (?) tsun- 'head'
(SD) tsumpu:pu

(C, SD) tsun- 					'pelo, cabeza, punta' (en palabras compuestas)
		'head, hair, point, top' (in compounds)
		cf. -tsun "point"
		CN tsontli (Car.) "cabello, pelo"; tzontli (Sim.) "cabello, pelo, sobre, extremo"; PN 			tson- "hair"

(C) -tsun  					la punta
		point, top
		i-tsun "its tip, point, top" 

(SD) -tsun  					cojollo (cogollo (de árbol)) 
		top (of a tree)

(C) mu-tsun-ahwilia (r.v., incorp.)  		mojarse la cabeza 
		to wet/dampen one's head
		ni-mu-tsunahwilia "I'm wetting my head" (nimutsuŋahwiliyaʔ)
		cf. tsun- 'head, hair', ahwilia "to wet"
(SD) mu-tsun-ahwilia

(SD) tsun-a:lepu  				renacuajo, tepocate (tsuŋa:lepuʔ) 
		tadpole
		cf. tsun- 'head'

(C) tsun-chalua (t.v., incorp.)  		machucar 
		to mash, to smash
		ni-k-tsunchalua "I smash it"
		cf. tsun- 'head', chalua "to hit, to beat" 
		cf. ta-tsunchalua "to be mashing (something)"
	
(C) tsunchekek  				pájaro carpintero
		woodpecker
		cf. tsun- 'head'
		cf. che:cheke
		cf. (SD) chehe
	
(SD) tsun-chichik  				chimbolo (pescado)
		fish sp.
		tsuhtsunchichik (pl.) 
		cf. tsun- 'head', (?) chichik "bitter"
		cf. (C) pu:te-t

(C)  tsun-chi:chi:l tzonchiche,  		sunchiche, quebrantahueso, zope cabeza roja 							(colorada) (zopilote de cabeza roja)
		red-headed vulture
		cf. tsun- 'head', chi:l- 'red'
(SD) tsun-chi:chi:l
	
(C) tsun-chi:ltik  				pelirrojo, rubio
		redhead
		cf. tsun- 'head, hair', chi:l-tik "red"

(C) tsun-eheka-t    		loco, pasmado (no tiene juicio, no entiende) (tsuŋehekat)
		"nuts", crazy
		cf. tusn- 'head', eheka-t "wind"
(SD) tsun-ehekat
	
(C) tsun-istak  					cana (tsuŋistak)
		grey hair
		cf. tsun- 'pelo', istak "white"
		CN cf. tzoniztac (Sim.) "canoso"

(C) tsun-i:xpuya:wi (i.v., incorp.)  		marearse
		to get dizzy, faint
		cf. tsun- 'head', i:x-puya:wi "to get dizzy"
	
(C) -tsunkal  					pelo
		hair
		i-tsunkal "his/her hair" 
		nu-tsunkal "my hair" 
		i-tsunkal sin-ti "el pelo de maíz" 
		cf. tsun- 'hair', (?) kal "house" 
		CN cf. tzoncalli (Sim.) "cabellera, peluca"
	(SD) -tsunkal (tsuŋgal)
	
(SD) tsun-kareta  				una lagartija
		lizard sp.
		cf. tsun- 'head', Sp.careta "mask"
	
(C) tsunkechehchel 				"la calavera (espanto)"
		"The Skull" (a supernatural spook) 
		(cf. chapter 7, text Sip and N)
		(note:"The skull" makes the sound: chi:k-che:l,  chi:k-che:l)
		cf. tsun- 'head'

(C) tsunkulu:chuh  				muruxo, colocho (crespo, rizado)
		curly haired
		cf. tsun- 'hair, head'
		CN cf. quacocolochtic (Mol.) "crespo"

(C) tsun-tameh  				puntudo, puntiagudo
		sharp, pointed
		cf. tsun- 'head, point', tameh "sharp edge, blade"
		cf. tsuhtsuntamehtia "to sharpen, to make them pointed"

(C) tsun-tapa:na (t.v., incorp.) 		 reventar la cabeza
		to break open someone's head
		ki-tsuntapa:n "(she) broke his head open" 
		cf. tsun- 'head', tapa:na "to break open"
(SD) tsun-tapa:na (t.v., r.v., incorp.) 		reventar(se) la cabeza
		to break open one's own/someone else's head
		ni-mu-tsuntapa:n "I broke my head open"

(C) tsun-teki (t.v., incorp.)  			machetear (machetar)
		to wound, to cut with a machete
		ki-tsuntek "(he) wounded him with a machete"
		cf. tsun- 'head', teki "to cut"
		CN cf. (?) tzontequi (Sim.) "juzgar un asunto, pronunciar una sentencia"      
(SD) tsun-teki (i.v., t.v., incorp.)  	herir(se)
		to wound
		mu-tsuntek "(he) wounded himself", ki-tsuntek "(he) wounded him"

(C) tsun-tekuma-t  				calavera, cabeza, "la calavera" (espanto)
		skull, head, "The Skull" (spook)
		-tsuntekun (poss.)  i-tsuntekun "her head, skull"
		cf. tsun- 'head', tekuma-t "bottle gourd"
		CN tzontecomatl (Sim.) "cabeza separada del cuerpo, cabeza" 
(SD) tsun-tekuma-t, -tsun-tekun

(C) tsuntekwi:ch  				seso(s)
		brains
		-tsuntekwi:ch (poss.) i-tsuntekwi:ch "his/her/its brains" 
		cf. tsun- 'head'

(C) tsun-tesu:n  				cabezón
		big-headed person, person with a large head
		cf. tsun- 'head'

(C) tsunte-t  					bagre (pescado)
		fish sp., catfish (?) 
		tsuhtsuntet (pl.) 
		cf. tsun- 'head', te-t "sone"
		CN cf. (?) tzontetl (Sim.) "idiota, tonto, estúpido"
		cf. (SD) tsunte-t "crazy"

(SD) tsun-te-t    		cabeza de piedra (tonto, loco, persona que no entiende)
		"nuts", crazy"
		cf. tsun- 'head', te-t "stone"
		CN tzontetl (Sim.) "idiota, tonto, estúpido"
		cf. (C) tsunte-t "fish (catfish (?))"

(SD) -tsunteyu -(i)kxi 				talón, tacón de pie
		heel
		i-tsunteyu nu-kxi "my heel"
		cf. tsun- 'head', (?) te- 'stone', -yu 'intimate poss.', (i)kxi "foot"
		cf. (C) -tsinteyu (ikxi)

(SD) tsun-ti  					veinte manos de maíz
		twenty handfuls of corn
		se: tsun-ti "one hundred ears of corn" (un sonte, cien mazorcas)
		6 tsun-ti "small faneague (bushel)" (fanega chiquita) 
		12 tsun-ti "large faneague (bushel)" (fanega grande)
		CN cf. cen  tzontli (Sim.) "cuenta de  400",  "para contar objetos planos, delgados"

(SD) tsun-tisi (t.v., inccorp.)  			moler (p. ej. cafÉ en oro, arroz sin granza, cosas 							ajenas en la masa)
		to grind (e.g. coffee, rice, foreign matter in the dough)
		ki-tsuntisi (pret.) "(she) grinds it (foreign matter)"
		cf. tsun- 'head', tisi "to grind"

(C) tsun-tu:ka (t.v., r.v.)   			agachar(se)
		to squat, to lower, to bend down
		ni-mu-tsuntu:ka "I bend down"
		ni-k-tsuntu:ka "I bent it down" 
		cf. tsun- 'head', tu:ka "to bury"

(SD) -tsun-tu:kay  				apellido
		surname
		i-tsuntu:kay "his/her surname" 
		cf. tsun 'head', tu:kay "name" 
		cf. (C) -tsuntu:key

(C) -tsun-tu:key  				apellido
		surname
		i-tsuntu:key "his/her surname" 
		cf. tsun- 'head', tu:key "name"
		cf. (SD) -tsun-tu:kay

(C) tsuntulupu  				tulupo, romo
		blunt
		cf. tsun- 'head, point', (?) Sp. tulupo

(C) tsun-tsapu-t  				sunza, zunza, sonzapote (árbol y fruta)
		zapote sp., tree and fruit, a large and hard fruit with a large pit and thin meat, yellow
		cf. tsun- 'head', tsapu-t "zapote"
(SD) tsuntsapu-t

(C) tsuntsaput-tiyuhkwawi-t  			caoba
		mahongany
		cf. tsun-tsapu-t "sunsa zapote", tiyuh-kwawi-t "cedar"

(C) tsuntsen-nah  				calvo (ralo de pelo)
		bald, thinning hair
		cf. tsun- 'head, hair', -nah 'adj.'

(Teotepeque) tsunwewech  			jolote, chompipe (guajolote, pavo) 
		turkey
		cf. tsun- 'head', Sp. güegüecho (?)
		cf. (SD) wewechu "turkey"

(SD) tsun-xi:lu-t  				pelirrojo, chele, canche (güero)
		blond or redheaded
		cf. tsun- 'head, hair', xi:lu-t "immature ear of corn"

(SD) tsunxi:pe  				pelón, calvo
		bald, hairless
		cf. tsun- 'hair, head', xi:pe:wi "to skin" 
		cf. (C) tsunxi:pets
(C) tsunxi:pets  				pelón
		bald, hairless
		cf. tsun- 'head, hair', xi:pe:wi "to skin", (?) pets-tik "smooth"
		cf. (Sim.) tsunxi:pe

(SD) -tsunyawal  			yagual (un trapo en forma de círculo que se pone en la 						cabeza para cargar cántaro, tinajas, etc.)
		a coiled piece of cloth put on the head for carrying water jugs, etc.
		cf. tsun- 'head', yawal "coiled cloth" (yagual)

(C) mu-tsunyuli:xkwepa (r.v., incorp.) 	dar vuelta de gato (voltereta)
		to do a somersault 
		ni-mu-tsunyuli:xkwep-ki "I turned a somersault"
		cf. tsun- 'head', -yul "heart", i:x-kwepa "to turn around/over"

(C) tsupe:le-k (adj.)  				dulce
		sweet
		tshutsupe:lek (pl.) 
		cf. tsupe:liya "to become sweet, to sweeten"
		CN tsope:lik (Car.)
(SD) tsupele-k

(C) tsupe:liya (i.v.)  				endulzarse
		to become sweet, to get sweet, to turn sweet, to sweeten
		tsupe:liya (pres.)
		tsupe:liya-k (pret.)
		tsupe:liya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsupe:lek "sweet", -ya 'inchoative'
		CN tsope:liya (Car.)

(C) tsupi  					ano, culo (tsupiʔ)
		anus, arse
		CN cf. tzopi (Sim.) "terminarse, acabarse"
(SD) tsupi 	ano, culo (palabra obscena)
		anus, arse (obscene)

(C) tsupina (t.v.)  				picar, pullar
		to sting, to stab
		tsupina (pres.)
		tsupin (pret.)
		tsupin-tuk (perf.)  ki-tsupin-tuk "(she) has stabbed him" 
		cf. (?) tsupi "anus, arse"
		CN tzopina (Sim.) "picar, incitar, acelerar, aguijonear"; tsopinia (UC) "punzar a otro"
(SD) tsupina (t.v.) 	picar, pullar, inyectar, picotear
		to sting, to stab, to peck (of birds), to inject (give an injection)
		maka xi-nech-tsupina "don't sting/stab me?"
(C) tsu:tsu  					grano, divieso (barro)
		boil, pimple
		CN cf. tzotzoui (Sim.) "tener granos, bubas"
(SD) tsu:tsu 	llaga, herida (tsu:tsuʔ)
		sore, wound
		CN cf. tzotzouiztli (Mol.) "llaga vieja"

(C) tsutsukul  					tinaja, cántaro
		pitcher, jug
		-tsutsukul (poss.) nu-tsutsukul "my jug"
		tsuhtsutsukul (pl.) 
		cf. (?) tsukul "lump, bump, knot"
		CN tzotzocolli (Mol.) "cántaro grande de barro"
(SD) tsutsukul

(C) tsutsuluka  				liso (extendido, p. ej. como un mantel
		smooth, straightened out (e.g. as a tablecloth)
		CN (?) tsoloa (UC) "estrechar, en(s)angostar"; cf. tzoloa (Sim.) "encoger, apretar,  			comprimir una cosa", tzoliui (Sim.) "encogerse, retirarsle, contraerse"

(C) tsutsu:na (t.v.)  				tocar (instrumento)
		to play (musical instrument)
		tsutsu:na (pres.) ni-k-tsutsu:na "I play it"
		tsutsu:n (pret.)
		tsutsu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-tsutsu:na "to play, to be playing"
		CN tsotsona (Car.) "golpear algo, taner instrumento"; tzotzona (Sim.) "tocar ciertos 			instrumentos"
(SD) tsutsu:na

(SD) tsuyu:na, tsuyu:nia (t.v.)  		freir; see tsuyu:nia
			to fry

(SD) tsuyu:ni (i.v.)  				freirse
		to fry
		tsuyu:ni (pres.)
		tsuyu:n-ki (pret.) (?)
		tsuyu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsuyu:na, tsuyu:nia (t.v.) "to fry" 
		CN tzoyoni (Sim.) "freirse"

(C) tsuyu:nia (t.v.)  				freir
		to fry
		tsuyu:nia (pres.)
		tsuyu:nih (pret.) ni-k-tsuyu:nih "I fried it" 
		tsuyu:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsuyu:ni (i.v.) "to fry, to be fried"
		CN tzoyonia (Sim.) "freir"
(SD) tsuyu:nia, tsuyu:na (t.v.) 	freir
		to fry
		tsuyu:na, tsuyu:nia (pres.)
		tsuyu:n-ki (pret.) ki-tsuyu:n-ki "(she) fried it" 
		tsuyu:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. tsuyu:ni (i.v.) "to fry, to be fried"

U

(C) (u)chpa:na (t.v.)  				barrer
		to sweep
		uchpa:na (pres.) ni-k-uchpa:na "I'm sweeping it" 
		uchpa:n (pret.)
		uchpa:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-chpa:na "to be sweeping"; uchpa:nwas "broom" 
		CN (o)chpa:na, tla-chpa:na (Car.); PN *ochpa:na
(SD) uchpa:na 	barrer, asear
		to sweep, to clean up
		cf. t-uchpa:na "to be sweeping"
	
(C) uchpa:nwas  				escoba
		broom
		-uchpa:nwas (poss.) 
		uhuchpa:nwas (pl.) 
		cf. (u)chpa:na "to sweep", -wa-s 'nominalization' 
		CN ochpauaztli (Sim.) "escoba"
(SD) uchpa:nwas
	
(C) u:chul-nah  				estrecho, angosto
		narrow
		CN (?) tzoltic (Mol.)
	
(SD) uhle  					hule (uhleʔ)
		rubber
		-uhle (poss.) nu-uhle "my rubber" (nuwuhleʔ) 
		uhuhle (pl.) 
		CN olli (Sim.) "hule"; cf. Sp hule (?)
		cf. (C) uhli
	
(C) uhli  					hule (uhliʔ)
		rubber
		-uhli (poss.)  nu-uhli "my rubber"
		uhuhli (pl.) 
		cf. uhli kwawi-t "rubber tree"
		CN olli (Sim.) "hule"; cf. Sp. hule (?)
		cf. (SD) uhle
	
(C) uhli kwawi-t  				palo de hule
		rubber tree
		cf. uhli "rubber", kwawi-t "tree" 
		CN cf. olquauitl (Sim.) 
(C) -uhmi-yu  					pluma
		feather
		i-uhmi-yu "its feather" (-yu 'intimate poss.') 
		i-uhuhmi-yu (pl. poss.) "its feathers"
		CN cf. (?) tomiotl (Sim.) "pelo, lana"
(SD) -uhmi-yu  	pluma, pelo de animal
		feather, fur

(C) uh-petawa (t.v., incorp.)  		chapear camino (rozar, limpiar camino con machete)
		to clean/clear a road of weeds and brush with a machete
		uhpetawa (pres.)
		uhpetah (pret.) ni-uhpetah "I chopped/cleaned the road" 
		uhpetah-tuk (perf.)
		cf. uh-ti "road", petawa "to open (shirt), to extend"

(C) uhta-t  				vara de tarro (como bambú pero verde y más chiquito) 		cane or reed sp., like bamboo, but smaller and green 
		-uhta-w (poss.) nu-uhta-w "my cane"
		CN otlatl (Sim.) "caña dura"

(C) uh-ti  				camino, sendero
	road, trail
	-uhpan (poss.) nu-uhpan "my road, way, trail" (-pan 'locative' (?))
	uhuhti (pl.) 
	cf. uh-petawa "to clear a road"
	CN oʔtli (Car.); PN *oh-
(SD) uh-ti 
		i-uh "his/her road" (iyuh)
		nu-uh "my road" (núwuh), (nuwúh)
		cf, -uh -tsunkal "part (in hair)"

(SD) -uh -tsunkal  			raya del pelo (camino del cabello)
		part in hair
		i-uh nu-tsunkal "my part" (iyuh nutsuŋkał)
		cf. uh-ti "road", -tsunkal "hair"
		(cf. iyuh -tsunkal)

(SD) uhu:lini (i.v., redup.)  			moverse, menearse, apurarse
		to stir, to move, to hurry
		x-uhu:lini "move!", "hurry!" (movete!, apurate!)
		cf. u:lini "to move, to stir"

(C) uh-u:me  					ambos, los dos
		both
		cf. u:me "two" (uh-u:me (pl.))
		CN oome (Sim.) 
(C) uh-u:me
(C) uhux 	ujuxte (árbol, fruta amarilla, se come su semilla) 
		tree sp., with yellow fruit whose seeds are eaten
		cf. uhux-ti "ujuxte fruit"
(SD) uhux
		uhuhux (pl.)

(C) uk (conj.)  			cuando ('aún, todavia, ahora, ademas, por, por ahora' (?))
		'when,  now, still, even, furthermore, by, for now' (?) (conj.)
		cf. -uk (clitic)
		cf. (Ataco) uk-se: "another, other"
		CN oc (Sim.) 
(SD) uk
		uk se:yuk "another" (se:yuk "(an)other")

(C, SD) -uk, -yuk (clítico) 		('aún, todavía, ahora, además, por ahora, hasta' (?))
		('still, yet, now, moreover, for now, until') (clitic)
		cf. mu:stayuk "until tomorrow" (hasta mañana)
		cf. peynayuk "it's still early, in the early morning"
		cf. sanuk "up to now, to the present" (hasta ahora) 
		cf. se:yuk "another, other"
		cf. te:yuk "not yet" (todavía no)

(C) ukich  					varón (ugich)
		male, man
		uhukich, uhukichmet (pl.) 
		CN okichtli (Car.) "varón, hombre"; PN *okɨch
(SD) ukich
		uhukich, ukichket (pl.) 

(Ataco) uk-se:  				otro
		other, another
		cf. uk ('still, furthermore'), se: "one"
		cf. (C, SD) se:yuk "another"; (SD) uk se:yuk "another"

(C) uksi (i.v.)  					madurarse, estar cocido
		to ripen, to be cooked/done
		uksi (pres.)
		uksi-k (pret.)
		uksi-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ukxitia (t.v.) "to ripen, to cook"; uksi-k "ripe, cooked"
		CN (i)kwsi (Car.) "cocerse, madurarse"
(SD) uksi

(C) uksi-k (adj.)  				cocido, maduro, listo
		cooked, ripe, done, ready
		cf. uksi "to ripen, to be cooked", -k 'adj.'
		CN icucic (Sim.) "maduro, cocido"
(SD) uksi-k

(C) uku-t  					ocote 
		pine, pine kindling, torch pine
		(also: okot, probably due to influence from Sp. ocote)
		uhukut, ohokot (pl.) 
		cf. uku-tal "pine stand, pine grove" (ocotal)
		CN ocotl (Sim.) "especie de pino aromático; PN *oko-

(C) uku-tal  					ocotal
		pine grove, stand of pines
		cf. uku-t "pine", -ta(:)l 'place of'

(C) ukxitia (t.v.)  				madurar, poner a madurar
		to ripen
		ukxitia (pres.) ni-k-ukxitia "I'm ripening it"
		ukxitih (pret.)
		ukxitih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. uksi (i.v.) "to ripen, to be cooked", -tia 'caus'.; cf. uksi-k "ripe, cooked"
		CN cf. tla-cuxitia (Mol.) "madurar"
(SD) ukxitia

(C) uli:ni (i.v.)  				menearse, moverse 
		to stir, to move
		uli:ni (pres.)
		uli:ni-k, uli:n-ki (pret.) 
		uli:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. uli:nia (t.v.) "to stir, to move" 
		cf. uhli "rubber"
		CN oli:ni (Car.) "menear"
(SD) u:lini
		cf. uhu:lini "to move, to hurry"

(C) uli:nia (t.v., r.v.)  				menear, menearse 
		to stir, to move
		uli:nia (pres.)
		uli:nih (pret.) ni-k-uli:nih "I stirred/moved it", ni-mu-uli:nih "I moved"

		uli:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. uli:ni "to move, to stir"
		CN olinia (Sim.) "remover, agitar algo, mover una cosa"; oli:nia (Car.); PN *o:li:nia
		cf. (SD) u:lintia "to stir"

(SD) u:lintia (t.v.)  				menear
		to stir
		u:lintia (pres.)
		u:lintih (pret.)
		u:lintih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. u:lini "to stir, to move"; cf. ta-u:lintia "to be stirring (something)"
		cf. (C) uli:nia

(C) ulul-nah  					redondo, esférico
		round, spherical
		cf. uhli "rubber" (?); cf. (SD) ululua "to roll"
		CN cf. ololtic (Sim.) "redondo como bola o una pelota"

(C) ululua (t.v.)  				recoger
		to pick up, to gather
		ululua (pres.)
		ululuh (pret.)
		ululuh-tuk (perf.) ni-k-ululuh-tuk "I have gathered it" 
		cf. ta-ululua "to gather (things), to be picking up"
		cf. ulul-nah "round"
		CN cf. ololoa (Sim.) "reunir cosas, juntar, amontonar, redondear"
		cf. (Sim.) ululua "to roll"

(SD) ululua (t.v.)  				 arrollar
		to roll
		ululua (pres.)
		ululuh (pret.)
		ululuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ku:lulua "to roll up"
		CN ololoa (Car.) "hacer alguna cosa redonda como bola" 
		cf. (C) ululua "to gather"

(C) ulu-t  					olote
		corncob (cob with no kernels)
		-ulu (poss.) nu-ulu "my corncob"
		uhulut (pl.) 
		CN olotl (Sim.) "mazorca de maiz desgranada"
(SD) ulu-t 

(SD) ulu-tsapu-t   		 uluzapote, sunza, soncita (un zapotillo con zapote largo)
		zapote sp., with long zapote fruits 
		cf. ulu-t "corncob", tsapu-t "zapote"

(C) ulu-xu:chit-t  		siemprevivo, siembreviva 
		plant sp., "house-leek" (?) (sempervivum)

(C) ulyuh  					bautismo
		baptism
		-ulyuh (poss.)  nu-ulyuh "my baptism"
		CN cf. (?) ollotl (Sim.) "centro, medio"

(SD) umar, -chiwa   				humar, fumar
		to smoke
		Sp. humar (local equivalent of fumar)

(C) u:me  					dos (u:meʔ)
		two
		uhu:me (pl.) "both"
		CN o:me (Car.); PN *o:mə
(SD) u:me
		uhu:me "both"

(C) u:minex  					uminexte, cafecillo (árbol)
		tree sp., hard wood, good for house beams 
		cf. u:mi-t "bone", nex-ti "ash"

(C) -u:miskwil  				costilla
		rib
		i-u:miskwil "his/her rib"
		nu-u:miskwil "my rib" 
		cf. u:mi-t "bone"
		CN omicicuilli (Mol.)

(C) u:mi-t  					hueso
		bone
		-u:mi-yu (intimate poss.) nu-u:mi-yu "my bone (part of my body)"
		-u:mi-w (poss.) nu-u:mi-w "my bone" (for eating)
		nu-uhu:mi-yu (pl. poss.) "my bones"
		CN omitl (Car.); PN *o:mV-
(SD) u:mi-t
		nu-u:mi-yu "my bone" (of my body) 
		nu-u:mit "my bone" (for eating)

(C) uni  			eso, ese, esa; aquel, aquella, aquello (demostrativo) 
		that (demonstrative)
		CN cf. ino
(SD) uni
		cf. yahuni "that"
		cf. uni-san "right there"

(C) uni (t.v.)  					beber
		to drink
		uni (pres.) ni-k-uni "I drink it" (niguniʔ), ki-uni "he drinks it" (gi(y)uniʔ)
		uni-k (pret.)
		uni-tuk (perf.)
		ni-mits-uni "I'm drinking you/(it) for you" (somewhat forced example but it 				demonstrates clearly that the root begins with u and not k as in many other Nahua  			varieties, e.g. Tetelcingo koni)
(SD) uni
		ni-mits-uni "I'm drinking you/(it) for you"

(SD) uni-san  					ahi no mas
		right there
		cf. uni "that", -san 'only'

(SD) untuwia (t.v.)  				atizar (el fuego)
		to poke, to stoke, to stir the fire
		untuwia (pres.) ni-k-untuwia "I'm stoking it"
		untuwih (pret.)
		untuwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. Sp. (?) junto (e.g. juntar el fuego "to stoke"),  -wia 'passive/caus.'

(SD) unyeroh  					unero
		ingrown nail
		Sp. unero

(C) u:pahkwawi-t  				chaperno (árbol)
		tree sp.
		cf. kwawi-t "tree"

(C) u:rah, o:rah  				hora, a la hora de
		hour, at that time, at the time when 
		Sp. hora

(SD) urakán  					huracán  
		strong wind 
		Sp. huracán

(C) u:rduh  					zurdo 
		left-handed 
		ni-u:rduh "I'm left-handed"

(C) ustu:kal    			Ostucal (nombre de una cueva en el camino a San Julian) 
		Ostucal, name of a cave on the road to San Julian)
		cf. ustu:-t "cave, ravine", kal "house" (?)

(C) ustu:-t  					barranco, cueva
		ravine, cave
		uhustu:t (pl.) 
		ka ustu:-t "in the ravine"
		CN o:sto:tl (Car.) "cave"; PN *osto:-
(SD) ustu:-t

(SD) ustu:t-a:-t  				Río la Barranca (nombre de un rio)
		"Ravine River" (name of a river)
		cf. ustu:-t "ravine, cave", a:-t "water, river"

(C) ustu:tsin  					gato de monte, gato onza, gato sonta
		wildcat, bobcat
		cf. (?) ustu:-t "cave, ravine", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) utsti-tuk  					embarazada, cargada, prenada
		pregnant
		cf. -tuk 'perf'
		CN cf. otzi(a) (Sim.) "prenar,  estar  embarazada",  otztli (Sim.) "prenada"; PN *o:ts-
(SD) utsti-tuk

(C) u:wa-t  					caña
		cane
		cf. ista(:)k-u:wa-t  "cane sp. (white cane)" 
		cf. chi:ltik-u:wa-t "cane sp. (red cane)"
		cf. u:wa-tal "canebreak"
(SD) u:wa-t
		u:wa-t istak "cane sp. (white cane)" 
		u:wa-t morado(h) "cane sp. (purple cane)" 
		u:wa-t xuxuhnah "cane sp. (purple cane)"

(C) u:wa-tal  				guatal, potrero (monte antes de limpiarse, algo alto) 			canebreak (?), overgrown or uncleared land
		cf. u:wa-t "cane", -ta(:)l; 'place of' 
(SD) u:wa-tal

(C) uwih   				difícil, costoso, apenas, "rejude"
		difficult, hard, extremely difficult; hardly, with difficulty 
		CN owiʔ (Car.)
(SD) uwih

(C) u:xi-sa:lua (t.v., incorp.) 		pegar el pañal en el bálasamo (ponen un trapo, parche 						en un cuadro raspado de la cáscara para absorber el 							bálsamo)
		to place a cloth/patch in a balsam tree on a scraped square in its bark in order to 				absorb the balsam sap
		cf. u:xi-t "balsam", sa:lua "to stick, to glue"
	
(C) u:xi-t  				bálsamo
		balsam tree, balm

		uhu:xit (pl.) 
		CN oxitl (Sim.) "especie de ungüento hecho con trementina"
	
(C) u:ya (t.v.)  				desgranar

		to shell (corn)
		u:ya (pres.)
		u:x-ki (pret.)  ni-k-u:x-ki "I shelled it"
		u:x-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-wiya "to shell, to be shelling"
		CN o:ya (Car.)
(SD) u:ya
		cf. ta-wiya, ta-u:ya "to shell, to be shelling"

W
	
(C) wahchul-tik  				bofito (liviano, cosa que no pesa)
		light
		cf. -ti-k 'adj.'
	
(C) wahkal   					guacal (jícara), morro, palo de morro
		gourd, gourd bowl, gourd tree
		wahwahkal (pl.) 
		wahkal-tsin "small gourd" (guacalito)
		CN cf. uacalli (Sim.) "especie de cuévano en forma de caja cuadrangular"
	
(SD) wahkal  					guacal, morro (jícara)
		gourd, gourd bowl, gourd tree
		cf. -wahkal "kneecap"

(SD) -wahkal, i-wahkal -tewahka  		rótula
		kneecap
		nu-wahkal "my kneecap"
		i-wahkal nu-tewahka "my kneecap" 
		cf. wahkal "gourd", -tewahka "knee"

(C) wahkalmalu:ni  				manune (árbol)
		tree sp., good for building
		cf. wahkal "gourd", (?) mali:na "to twist"

(SD) wahwa:ki (i.v., redup.) 			marchitarse
		to wither, to wilt
		cf. wa:ki "to dry"
	
(SD) wakalchiyah   				salicolchón (palomita (?), guacalchia (?))
		dove sp. (?)
		cf. Sp. guacalchia (cf. (?) wahkal "gourd", chiya "to look") 
		cf. (C) warakchiyu

(C) wa:ka:x  					ganado, vaca (wa:ga:x)
		cattle, cow
		-wa:ka:x (poss.) 
		wahwa:ka:x, wa:ka:xmet, wahwa:ka:xmet (pl.) 
		Sp. vacas
		cf. (SD) turuh 

(C) wa:ki (i.v.)  				secarse
		to dry
		wa:ki (pres.)
		wa:ki-k (pret.)
		wa:k-tuk (perf.)
		cf. wa:tsa (t.v.) "to dry", wa:k-tuk "dry", 
		CN wa:ki (Car.); PN *wa:ki
(SD) wa:ki
		cf. wahwa:ki "to wither"

(C) wa:k-ta:l  					terreno seco
		dry ground
		cf. wa:ki "to dry", -ta:l 'place of', "ground"

(C) wa:k-tuk (adj.) 				seco
		dry
		cf. wa:ki "to dry", -tuk 'perf.'
		cf. kuwa:k-tuk "it is dry"
		CN cf. uactoc (Sim.) "estar seco, maduro, hablando de trigo" 
(SD) wa:k-tuk

(C) waktsin   					guacse, guactsin, guacsín, guause (pájaro)
		bird sp., a kind of small owl which sings (?)
		cf. (?) -tsin 'diminutive'
		CN uactli (Sim.) "pajaro de cuyo canto se sacaban presagios" 
(SD) waktsin

(C, SD) (w)al-  				'hacia aca' ('direccional')
		'hither' (directional prefix)
		(note: wal- appears when no other prefix precedes; otherwise -al- occurs)
		cf. wa:la(:)h "came"
		CN wal- (Car.) "hacia aca"

(C) wa:la:h ('pret.' of wi:ts) 			"to come", irregular verb)
		wa:lah (pret.) "(he/she/it) came"
		wa:la:h-ke-t (pret. pl.) "they came" 
		cf. wi:ts "(he/she/it) comes"
		cf. (w)al- 'hither' ('dir.')
		CN wa:llaʔ (Car.); PN *wa:lla:h-
(SD) wa:lah

(C) (w)al-ahsi (t.v.)  				hallar, encontrar
		to find
		-al-ahsi (pres.) n-al-ahsi "I find it", k-al-ahsi "he found it"
		-al-ahsi-k (pret.)
		-al-ahsi-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', ahsi "to arrive, to find"
		CN ualaci (Sim.) "sobrevenir, sorprender"

(SD) (w)al-ahsi (t.v.)  				alcanzar
		to reach, to catch up with

(C) (w)al-a:na (t.v.)  				traer
		to bring, to fetch 
		-al-a:na (pres.)
		-al-a:n-ki (pret.) n-al-a:n-ki "I brought it" (nala:ŋgiʔ)
		-al-a:n-tuk (perf.)
		x-al-a:na "bring it!"
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', a:na "to grab, to pick up"
(SD) (w)al-a:na

(C) walchachapaka  				salto de agua, chorro de agua (cascada)
		waterfall
		cf. (?) (w)al- 'hither'
		CN cf. chachapaca (Sim.) "caer gotas grandes"

(SD) walchakeh   			gualchaque, gualxaque, guaxaque (mal espíritu en 							forma de chompipe o ave grande)  (walchakeh)
		an evil spirit or malicious supernatural being in the form of a turkey or a large bird
		cf. (C) waxake

(C) (w)al-ehku (i.v.)  				llegar acá
		to arrive here
		-al-ehku (pres.)
		-al-ehku-k (pret.)
		-al-ehku-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', ehku "to arrive"
(SD) (w)al-ehku
		n-al-ehku-k-a "I already arrived (here)" (nalehkugaʔ)

(C) (w)al-i:ka (t.v.)  				traer
		to bring
		-al-i:ka (pres.)
		-al-i:ka-k (pret.) t-al-i:ka-ke-t "we brought it" 
		-al-i:ka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', wi:ka "to take, to carry"
		cf. (w)al-wi:ka

(C) (w)al-i:sa (i.v.)  				despertarse
		to wake up 
		-al-i:sa (pres.)
		-al-i:sa-k (pret.)
		-al-i:sa-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', i:sa "to wake up"
		CN ualica (Sim.) "levantarse, despertarse" 
(SD) (w)al-i:sa (i.v., t.v. (?)) 			despertar(se), recordar 
		to wake up, to remember

(SD) (w)al-i:xtia (t.v.)  			sacar
		to take out, to get out, to remove
		-al-i:xtia (pres.)
		-al-i:xtih (pret.)
		-al-i:xtih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', i:xtia "to get out, to take out" 
		cf. (C) (w)al-ki:xtia

(C) (w)al-ixtu:na  				tardarse, dilatarse
		to be late, to delay
		-al-ixtu:na (pres.)
		-al-ixtu:n-ki (pret.) n-al-ixtu:n-ki "I was late" (nalixtu:ŋgiʔ)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', ixtu:na "to be late"

(C) (w)al-ki:sa (i.v.)  				salir (estando ya afuera)
		to leave (from outside)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', ki:sa "to leave"
		CN ualquica (Sim.) "salir del fondo, aparecer, surgir" 
(SD) (w)al-ki:sa

(C) (w)al-ki:xtia (t.v.)  			sacar
		to take out, to get out, to remove
		-al-ki:xtia (pres.)
		-al-ki:xtih (pret.)
		-al-ki:xtih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', ki:xtia "to get out, to remove" 
		cf. (SD) (w)al-i:xtia

(SD) (w)alkuwetsi  				caerse
		to fall
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', (?) ku- 'head', wetsi "to fall"

(C) (w)al-kwi (t.v.)  				traer (para acá)
		to bring
		-al-kwi (pres.)
		-al-kwih (pret.)
		-al-kwih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', kwi "to grab"
		CN ualcui (Sim.) "llevar, traer" 
(SD) (w)al-kwi (t.v.) 		agarrar
		to take, to grab

(C) (w)al-naka  				quedarse
		to stay, to remain
		wal-naka-k "(he/she) stayed", n-al-naka-k "I stayed" 
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', naka "to stay"

(C) (w)al-na:miki (t.v.)  			creer
		to believe
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', na:miki "to meet"
		CN cf. ualnamiqui (Sim.) "ir a recibir a alguien"

(C) (w)al-mu-ne:lwia (r.v.)  			apurarse
		to hurry
		-al-mu-ne:lwia (pres.)
		-al-mu-ne:lwih (pret.)
		-al-mu-ne:lwih-tuk (perf.)
		x-al-mu-ne:lwi "hurry!"
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', mu-ne:lwia "to hurry"

(C) (w)al-ne:si  				aparecerse
		to appear, to come into sight
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', ne:si "to appear, to be seen"

(C) (w)al-nu:tsa (t.v.)  			llamar, ir a llamar
		to call, to go call
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', nu:tsa "to speak" 
		n-al-nu:tsa "I'm going to call him"
		CN cf. no:tsa (Car.) "to call"

(C) (w)alta:kati (i.v.)  				nacer (empezar a crecer) 
		to begin to grow, to sprout, to be born 
		walta:kati (pres.) (?)
		walta:kat-ki (pret.)
		walta:kat-tuk (perf.) (?) cf. (w)al- 'hither'
		CN tlacati (Sim.) "nacer"

(C) (w)al-temu (i.v.)  				bajarse
		to come down, to descend
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', temu "to come down, to descend"
		CN ualtemo (Sim.) "descender"

(C) (w)al-tsin-ki:sa (i.v., incorp.)  		salir escondido
		to leave in hiding, to leave (hidden)
		-al-tsin-ki:sa (pres.)
		-al-tsin-ki:s-ki (pret.) wal-tsin-ki:s-ki "she is leaving in hiding" (waltsingi:sgiʔ)
		-al-tsin-ki:s-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', tsin- 'base, buttocks', ki:sa "to leave" 
		CN cf. tzinquica "volver la espalda, retroceder, batirse en retirada"
(SD) (w)al-tsin-ki:sa (i.v., incorp.)		 acercarse
		to approach, to draw near
		x-al-tsin-ki:sa "come closer!"

(C) (w)al-wi:ka (t.v.)  				traer
		to bring
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', wi:ka "to take, to carry"
		cf. (w)al-i:ka "to bring"
(SD) (w)al-wi:ka

(C) (w)al-xi:ni (i.v.) 				 regarse, caerse (como fruta)
		to sprinkle, to scatter, to fall (like fruit, seeds)
		cf. (w)al- 'hither', xi:ni "to scatter, for fruit to fall"

(C) -wan (sustantivo relacional)  		con  
		with (relational noun)
		nu-wan "with me"
		mu-wan "with you"
		i-wan "with him/her/it" 
		tu-wan "with us"
		anmu-wan "with you (pl.)" 
		in-wan "with them"
		cf. wan "and" 
		CN -uan (Sim.) 
(SD) -wan

(C) wan (conj.)  				y and (conj.)
		cf. -wan "with" 
(SD) wan

(C) warachiyu  				guacalchia (palomita (?)) 
		dove sp., small
		cf. (SD) wakalchiyah

(SD) wardián  					guardián, curandero 
		guardian, curer
		Sp. guardian

(SD) wa:ruh  					guaro, licor
		cane liquor, corn liquor
		Sp. guaro

(SD) wasa:ma-t  				arco iris (un monte, una planta del campo)
		a wild plant sp., "rainbow" plant
		CN cf. (?) uacamatl (Sim.) "raíz comestible"

(SD) waska-t  					plumillo (árbol)
		tree sp., "small-feather" tree

(C) wa:tsa (t.v.)  				secar
		to dry
		wa:tsa (pres.)
		wa:ts-ki (pret.) ni-k-wa:ts-ki "I dried it"
		wa:ts-tuk (perf.)
		cf. wa:ki (i.v.) "to dry"
		CN watsa (Car.); wa:tsa (UC)
(SD) wa:tsa
		cf. ta-wa:tsa "to be drying (somehting)"

(C) wawa:na (t.v.)  				raspar, rascar (con uñas), arrascar
		to scrape, to scratch (with fingernails, with claws)
		wawa:na (pres.)
		wawa:n (pret.) ni-k-wawa:n-a "I already scratched her" (nikwawa:naʔ)
		wawa:n-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. uauana (Sim.) "arar, ahondar la tierra, trazar, dibujar una cosa"
	
(SD) wawa:na (t.v., r.v.)  			rascar(se), raspar(se), rasurarse, piafar
		to scratach, to scrape, to shave, to paw (horse)
		wawa:n(-ki) (pret.)
		ni-k-wawa:na  "I scratch it",  ni-mu-wawa:na "I'm  scratching (myself)"

(SD) wawasua (t.v.)  				rayar, raspar
		to scratch, to make scratches, stripes, or lines
		wawasua (pres.)
		wawasuh (pret.)
		wawasuh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. wawasuh-tuk (adj.) "striped, scratched"

(SD) wawasuh-tuk (adj.)  			rayado
		striped, lined, scratched
		cf. wawasua "to scratch, to line, to stripe", -tuk 'perf.'

(C) waxake, waxa:keh  			gualxaque, guaxaque, gualchaque (mal espíritu 							que asusta o espanta de noche, de forma de un 							ave grande como jolote)
		evil spirit, a malicious supernatural being which frightens people at night, in the form 			of a large bird like a turkey
		cf. (SD) walchakeh

(C) wa:xin  					palo guaje (árbol)
		tree sp. (not a gourd tree)
		wahwa:xin (pl.) 
		CN cf. wa:xin (Car.); uaxin (Sim.) "árbol cuyo fruto, parecido al del algarrobo, es 				comestible"

(C) wehka  					lejos (wehkaʔ)
		far, distant
		cf. we:y "big"
		CN weʔka (Car.); PN *wəhka 
(SD) wehka

(C) -wehpu:l, -wehpul  			cuñado
		brother-in-law
		i-wehpul  "his/her brother-in-law" 
		nu-wehpul "my; brother-in-law" 
		nu-wehwehpulmet (pl. poss.) "My brothers-in-law" 
		CN yepulli (Mol.) "cunada de hombre"
		cf. (SD) -ehpul "woman's brother-in-law"

(SD) weku(h)  				hueco
		hollow
		Sp. hueco

(SD) welchah  				godorniza (codorníz)
		quail
		wehwelchah (pl.) 

(C) weli (i.v.)  					poder
		to be able, can (note: also appears in auxiliary-like constructions)
		weli (pres.) ni-weli "I can"
		weli-k (pret.)
		weli-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. weliti (UC) "poder hacer algo"; wel (Car.) "bien"; ueli (Sim.) "posible" (adj., 			adv.)
(SD) weli

(C) welo:rah  					mediodía, buen tiempo
		noon, good time (?)
		pal welo:rah "by noon" (para mediodía)
		cf. wel ('before, well'); Sp. hora

(SD) -weltiw, -eltiw  				hermana de hombre
		man's sister
		i-weltiw, i-eltiw "his sister"  
		nu-weltiw "my sister"
		CN cf. weltiwtli (Car.) "hermana mayor"

(SD) welto(h), bwelto(h)  			vuelto, cambio
		change (money)
		Sp. vuelto

(SD) -weweruh-yu  				manzana de Adán
		Adam's apple
		cf. (?) Sp. gueguecho "goiter", -yu 'intimate poss.'

(C) -wes  					concuñada, concuña
		co-sister-in-law, term for women married to brothers
		i-wes "her co-sister-in-law"
		nu-wes "my co-sister-in-law"
		CN cf. weswastli (Car.) "cunada de mujer" 
(SD) -wes 	cuñada de mujer
		woman's sister-in-law
		wehwes (pl.) 
		nu-wes-wan (pl. poss.) "my sisters-in-law"

(C) wetsi (v.i.)  				caerse
		to fall
		wetsi (pres.)
		wets-ki (pret.)  ni-wets-ki "I fell"
		wets-tuk (perf.)
		cf. wets a:-t "it is raining"
		CN wetsi (Car.); PN *wətsi
(SD) wetsi
		ni-wets-tuk "I have fallen down, I'm lying down" 
		cf. wetsi a:-t "it is raining"

(C) wetsi a:-t  					llover
		to rain
		cf. wetsi "to fall", a:-t "water" 
		wets nemi a:-t "it is raining"
(SD) wetsi a:-t

(C) wetska (i.v.)  				reirse
		to laugh
		wetska (pres.) ni-wetska "I'm laughing" 
		wetska-k (pret.)
		wetska-tuk (perf.)
		cf. wetska (n.) "laugh, laughter"
		CN wetska (Car.) "reirse"

(C) wetska (n.)  				risa
		laugh, laughter
		cf. wetska "to laugh"
(SD) wewechu(h)  				chompipe varón (guajolote macho) 
		male turkey, tom turkey
		Sp. gueguecho "goiter"

(C) we:weh 					 tambor pequeño
		small drum
		CN we:we:tl (Car.) "guitarra, atabal" 
		cf. (SD) we:we:-t

(SD) we:we:-t  				tamborcito, tambor 
		chiquito small drum
		wehwe:we:t (pl.) 
		CN we:we:tl (Car.) "guitarra, atabal"

(C) we:y  					grande
		big, large
		cf. we:y-ihti "pregnant"
		CN we:i (Car.); PN *we:y(i)
(SD) we:y  	bastante, mucho, recio
		much, loud, lots
		cf. ombrón "big"
		cf. we:y -ihti "pregnant"

(SD) we:y -ihti  				embarazada pregnant
		we:y i-ihti "she is pregnant”
		we:y nu-ihti "I am pregnant" 
		cf. we:y "much (big)", ihti "belly" 
		cf. (SD) we:y-ihti

(C) weyak  					largo
		long
		wehweyak (pl.) 
		CN ueyac (Sim.) 
(SD) weyak  					largo; niño que crecío 
		long; a child that has grown 
		cf. kuweyak "long and pointed"

(SD) mu-weyaltia (r.v.)  			crecer
		to grow
		mu-weyaltia (pres.) 
		mu-weyaltih (pret.) (?)
		mu-weyaltih-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. we:y "much (big)", weyak "long", -(l)tia 'caus.'; cf. mu-weya "to grow"
		CN cf. ueya (Sim.) "crecer"

(SD) mu-weya (r.v.)  				crecer
		to grow
		mu-yewa (pres.) (?)
		mu-weya-k (pret.)
		mu-weya-tuk (perf.) (?) 
		cf. mu-weyaltia "to grow" 
		CN ueya (Sim.) 

(C) weyaya kwerpoh  				un viejo (de 50 años para arriba)
		old man, over 50 years old
		cf. we:y "big"; Sp. cuerpo
		cf. (SD) mu-weya "to grow"

(C) we:y-ihti  					embarazada
		pregnant
		cf. we:y "big", ihti "belly"
		cf. (SD) we:y -ihti

(C) we:y-i-xumpe  				"el sombrerón" (ser sobrenatural, espanto) 
		"Big-Hat", a supernatural being (spook), like the headless horseman
		cf. we:y "big" i-xumpe "his hat"

(SD) -we:yka  					cuerpo; vulva
		body; vulva
		nu-we:yka "my body, my vulva"  (nuwe:ygaʔ)
		CN cf. (?) ueica (Sim.) "superior, grandemente"

(C) we:ymuhku  				Armenia (nombre de pueblo)
		town name
		cf. we:y "big"

(C) wihwila:nia (t.v., redup. (?))  		colgar
		to hang
		wihwila:nia (pres.)
		wihwila:nih (pret.) ki-wihwila:nih "(she) hangs it"
		wihwila:nih-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. uiuilana (Sim.) "estar tullido"; cf. (?) wila:na (UC) "arrastrar"

(C) wihwile:h-tuk (adj.)  			descompuesto, desarmado
		broken, out of order, taken apart
		cf. wile:wi "to break down"

(C) wi:ka  					llevar
		to take, to carry
		wi:ka (pres.) ni-k-wi:ka "I carry it" (nikwi:gaʔ)
		wi:ka-k (pret.)
		wi:ka-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-wi:ka "to carry (something)"; cf. (w)al-wi:ka, (w)al-i:ka "to bring"; cf. wi:kilia 			"to owe"
		CN wi:ka (Car.)
(SD) wi:ka

(C) wi:kilia (t.v.)  				deber (una deuda (a alguien)
		to owe (someone something)
		wi:kilia (pres.) ni-mits-wi:kilia "I owe you (a debt)" 
		wi:kilih (pret.)
		wi:kilih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. wi:ka "to take, to carry", -(i)lia 'applic.'
		cf. ta-wi:kilia "to owe (something)"
		CN cf. uiquilia (Sim.) "reverencial de uica"
(SD) wikilia

(C) wile:wa (t.v.)  				destruir, deshacer
		to destroy, to take apart      
		wile:wa (pres.)
		wile:h (pret.)  ni-k-wile:h "I destroyed it"
		wile:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-wile:wa "to take (something) apart"; wile:wi "to break down"

(C) wile:wi (i.v.)  				descomponerse
		to break down
		wile:wi (pres.)
		wile:wi-k (pret.)
		wile:h-tuk (perf.) (?)
		cf. wile:wa (t.v.) "to destroy, to take apart"; wihwile:h-tuk "out of order, broken"

(C) wi:lu-i:x  					güiligüixte (árbol)
		tree sp.
		cf. wi:lu-t "bird", i:x 'face', "eye"

(C) wi:lu-t  					pájaro
		bird
		wi:lu-tsin "bird" (the most common form) 
		wi:lutsitsin "little birds" (pajaritos) 
		CN uilotl (Sim.) "paloma"
		cf. (SD) wi:lu-t "dove"

(SD) wi:lu-t  					paloma grande de monte; pene 
		dove sp., large wild dove; penis 
		i-wi:lut "his penis"
		CN uilotl (Sim.) "paloma"
(C) winku:lax  			granadilla montes (bejuco con fruta como granadilla) 		wild vine sp., with a fruit like pomegranate (?)
		wihwinku:lax (?)
		cf. Sp. guin "light vine or root sprout", colas "tails"

(C) wi:pta  					pasado manana (wi:ptaʔ)
		day after tomorrow"
		CN wi:ptla (Car.)
(SD) wi:pta

(C) wistumun  				paloma del suelo
		dove sp.

(C) witeki (t.v.)  				castigar, azotar, golpear, pegar, aporrear 
		to punish, to whip, to beat, to hit
		witeki (pres.)  ni-k-witeki "I punish him/her"
		witek (pret.) nech-witek "(he/she) punished/beat me" 
		witek-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) teki "to cut"
		cf. ta-witeki "to punish, to be punishing"
(SD) witeki

(C) wi:ts (i.v., irregular)  			venir
		to come (irregular)
		wi:ts (pres.) ni-wi:ts "I'm coming", ti-wi:ts-et "we're coming"
		wa:la(:)h (pret.) ni-wa:lah "I  came", ti-wa:la:h-ke-t "We came"
		wa:la:h-tuk (perf.)
		CN wi:ts (Car.) "venir", wa:llaʔ, wa:lla:- (Car.) "ir (pasado); PN *wi:ts
(SD) wi:ts
		wa:lah (pret.)

(C) wits-kili-t  			güisquilite (hierba de monte en varitas con muchas 							espinas, no se come)
		plant sp., wild plant, small canes or reeds, lots of thorns
		cf. wits-ti "thorn", kili-t "chipilin plant"
		CN cf. uitzquilitl (Sim.) "cardo, cabeza de alcachofa"
(SD) wits-kili-tl 	huizquil, güisquil (chayote (?))
		chayote plant (?)

(C) wits-kuyul    		güiscoyol, huiscoyol (clase de palma chiquita con espinas)
		palm sp., a small, very thorny palm, with small, ball-shaped fruit, like small coconuts, 			which is eaten
		cf. wits-ti "thorn", kuyul "coyol palm"
(SD) wits-kuyul

(C) wits-takwatsin  				zorro espín (puerco espín)
		porcupine
		cf. wits-ti "thorn", takwatsin "opossum"
		CN uitztlacuatzin (Sim.) "especie de puerco espin"

(C) wits-tal  					espinero (lugar con muchas espinas)
		thorny place, briar patch (?)
		cf. wits-ti "thorn", -ta(:)l 'place of'

(C) wits-ti  					espina
		thorn
		-wits-yu (poss.) i-wits-yu "its thorn(s)" (-yu 'intimate poss.')
		cf. wits-tal "thorny place"
		CN wits- (Car.); uitztli (Sim.); PN *wits-
(SD) wits-ti
		wihwitsti (pl.) 
		i-wits-yu ne kwawi-t "the tree's thorn"
		cf. wits-tik "thorny"

(SD) wits-tik  					de espinas (espinoso)
		thorny
		wihwitstik (pl.) 
		cf. wits-ti "thorn", -ti-k 'adj.'
		CN cf. uitztic (Sim.) "puntiagudo, agudo"

(C) wits-tuma-t  				güistomate (palito (arbusto) con tomatillos 								amarillos que no se comen, con muchas espinas)
		a thorny bush, with non-edible tomato-like fruit
		cf. wits-ti "thorn", tuma-t "tomato"
		CN uitztomatl  (Sim.) "arbolillo cuya corteza se usa come remedio para los ojos"
(SD) wits-tuma-t

(C) wiwita (t.v.)  				arrancar (hierba)
		to pull out (plants), to uproot
		wiwita (pres.)
		wiwit-ki (pret.) ni-k-wiwit-ki "I pulled it out"
		wiwit-tuk (perf.)
		CN uiuitla (Sim.) "arrancar, coger, desplumar"
	
(SD) wiwita  					arrancar, desplumar
		to pull out, to uproot; to pluck (feathers)
		wiwita-k (pret.)
		wiwita-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-wiwita "to be pulling out"
	
(C) wix(-)ti   					güixte (pedazo de vidrio quebrado)
		piece of broken glass
		-wixti (poss.) nu-wixti "my piece of broken glass"
		wihwixti (pl.) 

X

(C) xahkal 					ramada, ramadita, ranchito, rancho
		shed, shack
		xahxahkal (pl.) 
		CN xaʔkalli  (Car.) "casa de paja"; xacalli (Sim.) "choza, cabana, casa con techo de 			paja"
(SD) xahkal
	
(C) xahxakwalua (t.v., redup.) 		restregarlos
		to scrub, to scrape ((pl.) 
		cf. xakwalua "to scrub, to scrape"
		CN xaxaqualoa (Sim.) "restregarse, frotarse contra algo"
		cf. (SD) xahxakwalua "to mash"
	
(SD) xahxakwalua  				machucarlos
		to mash, to smash, to pound (pl.) 
		cf. xakwalua "to mash"
		CN xaxaqualoa (Sim.) "restregarse, frotarse contra algo"
		cf. (C) xahxakwalua "to scrub"
	
(C) xakwalua (t.v.)  				restregar
		to scrub, to scrape
		xakwalua (pres.)
		xakwaluh (pret.) ni-k-xakwaluh "I scrubbed it" 
		xakwaluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. xahxakwalua "to scrub (them)"
		CN xaqualoa (Sim.) "frotarse, rascarse"
		cf. (SD) xakwalua "to mash"
	
(SD) xakwalua (t.v.)  				machucar, pelear (de perros)
		to pound, to mash, for dogs to fight 
		xakwalua (pres.)
		xakwaluh (pret.)
		xakwaluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. xahxakwalua "to pound (them)"
		cf. ta-xakwalua "to be pounding, mashing"
		cf. (C) xakwalua "to scrub"

(C) xa:lmu:yu:-t  				chijín (mosca chiquitilla) 
		very small fly sp., small gnat sp.
		cf. xa:l ('sand'), mu:yu:-t "gnat" 
(SD) xa:lmu:yu-t  jején
		gnat

(C) xa:lte:n  					sartén
		frying pan, cooking dish
		-xa:lte:n (poss.) 
		xahxa:lte:n (pl.) 
		Sp. sartén

(SD) xa:ltu:kani  				dormilona (garrobito, clase de lagartija) 
		lizard sp., a small iguana called "sleeper"
		cf. xa:l ('arena'), tu:ka "to bury", -ni 'agent'

(SD) xa:ltutu:n  				salpullido, sarna
		rash, mange
		-xa:ltutu:n (poss.) 
		cf. xa:l ('sand'), tutu:nik "hot"
		cf. (C) xa:ltutu:nik

(C) xa:ltutu:nik  				salpullido
		rash
		cf. xa:l ('sand'), tutu:nik "hot"
		cf. (SD) xa:ltutu:n

(C) xa:ma:nia (t.v.)  				tostar tortilla
		to toast tortillas
		xa:ma:nia (pres.)
		xa:ma:nih (pret.)
		xa:ma:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-xa:ma:nia "to be toasting"; cf. taxa:ma:nti "tostado"      
		CN cf. (?) xamania (Sim.) "estrellar, romper una cosa" (Ultimately this is a loan from 			Mixe-Zoquean *samɨ "to heat")
		cf. (SD) xama:ntia

(SD) xama:ntia (t.v.)  				tostar tortilla
		to toast tortillas
		xama:ntia (pres.)
		xama:ntih (pret.)
		xama:ntih-tuk (perf.) cf. -tia 'caus.'
		cf. (C) xa:ma:nia

(C) xa:n  					después, más tarde
		later

(C) xa:nti Santiago (nombre de personas) (xa:ntiʔ) 
	Santiago ("James, personal name)
		Sp. Santiago

(C) xapun  					jabón
		soap
		Sp. jabón
(SD) xapun
		nu-xapun "my soap"

(C) xapu-t  					sepultura, tumba, hoyo del entierro, sepulcro 		tomb, grave, sepulcher
		CN cf. xapotla (Mol.) "romper u horadar pared", (cf. tlaxapochtli (Mol.) "hoyo"
(SD) xapu-t

(C) xara(h)  					xara (pájaro)
		bird sp.
		Sp. xara

(C) xa:wa (t.v.)  				rozar, guatalear, desmontar 
		to clear off land of vegetation
		xa:wa (pres.)
		xa:h-ki (pret.)  ni-k-xa:h-ki "I cleared it off"
		xa:h-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. xaua (Sim.) "afeitarse la india a su modo antiguo, pintarse el fruto"
(SD) xawa
		xaw-ki (pret.)
		xaw-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ta-xawa "to be clearing (something)"

(C) xa:wa  					adios (contestacion) (xa:waʔ)
		goodbye (the reply after one has been greeted by another)
		cf. niyawa "goodbye" (said by the first to leave or to greet) 
		cf. (SD) xa:wa tel
		cf. (?) x(i)- 'imperative', yawi "to go", -a 'already, now'

(SD) xa:wa tel  				adios (contestación)
		goodbye (the reply after one has been greeted by another)
		cf. niyawa tel "goodbye" (said by the first to leave or to greet)

(C) xaxawaka  				aspero
		rough
		CN cf. (?) xaxauaca (Sim.) "derramarse esparcirse"

(C) xe:pah  					Sebastiana (nombre de personas)
		Sebastiana (personal name)
		Sp. Sebastiana

(C) xe:puh  					Sebastián (nombre de personas)
		Sebastian (personal name)
		Sp. Sebastián
(SD) -xetah  					jeta, labio
		snout, lip
		Sp. jeta

(C) xihxi:kua (t.v.) 				engañar, mentir
		to cheat, to deceive, to lie
		xihxi:kua (pres.)
		xihxi:kuh (pret.) ki-xihxi:kuh "(he/she) deceived him/her" 
		xihxi:kuh-tuk (perf.)
		tesu ti-nech-xihxi:kua "don't deceive me!" (no me enganes!" 
		cf. (?) xi:k "navel"
		CN xixicoa (Sim.) "enganar"
(SD) xihxi:kua

(SD) xihxini (i.v., redup.)  			pringar (lloviznar)
		to sprinkle
		xihxini a:-t "to sprinkle light drops" (pringar pringuitas)
		cf. xini "to sprinkle, to scatter, to fall"

(C) xihxipi:ntsin  				chichipince (arbusto (matocha)) 
		a bush sp., small with orange flowers
		-tsin 'diminutive'
		CN cf. (?) xipintli "prepucio, capullo del miembro" 
		cf. (Sim.) chihchipi:ntsin

(C) -xi:k  					ombligo
		navel, bellybutton
		nu-xi:k "my navel"
		CN xictli (Sim.) ; PN *xi:k-

(SD) -xi:k  					ombligo; badajo
		navel; bell clapper
		i-xi:k kampa:nah "bell clapper"

(C) xi:kal 					tarro (jícara) (xi:gał) 
		large gourd, gourd bowl
		-xi:kal (poss.) nu-xi:kal "my gourd dish"
		CN xicalli (Sim.) "jícara (especie de vasija de madera que sirve para beber)"       
(SD) xi:kal  	tol, clase de guacal (jícara)
		gourd bowl
		xihxi:kal (pl.) 

(C) xi:kama  					jícama (xi:kamaʔ)
		a large edible root (Bumelia solscifolia (?))
		-xi:kama (poss.) 
		CN xicama(tl) (Sim.) "raíz muy dulce que se come cruda" 
cf. (SD) xikamah

(SD) xikamah  				jicama (xigamah)
		a large edible root (Bumelia solscifolia (?))
		-xikamah (poss.) 
		xihxikamah (pl.) 
		CN xicama(tl) (Sim.) "raíz muy dulce que se come cruda"
		cf. (C) xi:kama

(C) xi:kuh  					jicote (abeja, avispa)
		bee or wasp sp., small, black
		xihxi:kuh (pl.) 
		CN xi:koʔtli (Car.) "abejón"; xicotli (Mol.) "abeja grande de miel que horada los 			árboles"
(SD) xi:kuh 	jicote, avispa (xi:guh)
		wasp sp., black

(SD) xi:ku-gitarra(h)  				guitarrón (una avispa negra que pica duro) 
		wasp sp., black, sting hurts very much
		cf. xi:kuh "wasp sp.", Sp. guitarra"

(C) xi:kupiluwas  				barajo (palito (arbolito))
		bush or small tree sp.
		cf. xi:kuh "wasp sp.", pilua "to hang", -wa-s 'nominalization'

(C) xila   					jila (nombre de palo, de su flor) (xilaʔ)
		tree sp., its flower of the same name
(SD) xila

(C) xi:lu-t  					jilote
		small, immature, green ear of corn before it develops kernels 
		-xi:lu (poss.) nu-xi:lu "my green ear of corn"
		CN xilotl (Sim.) "mazorca de maíz todavia lechosa pero ya comestible"
(SD) xi:lu-t
		xihxi:lut (pl.) 

(C) xi:ma (t.v.)  				cortar el pelo, rasurar
		to cut hair, to shave
		xi:ma (pres.)
		xi:n-ki (pret.) ni-k-xi:n-ki "I shaved him" (nikxi:ŋgiʔ) 
		cf. (mu-)te:n-xi:ma "to shave (beard)"
		CN xima (Sim.) "afeitarse, cortarse los cabellos"
(SD) xi:ma 	raspar, rasurar
		to scrape, to shave

(C) xina:ch 					chinaste, matriz, ovario
		womb, ovary, egg inside of chicken
		-xi:nach (poss.) 
		CN cf. xina:chtli (Car.) "semilla"
(SD) -xina:ch
		i-xina:ch "her womb"
		-xihxina:ch (pl.) 

(C) xi:ni (i.v.)  				regarse, botarse, caerse una fruta
		to scatter, to fall (fruit)
		xi:ni (pres.)
		xi:ni-k (pret.)
		xi:n-tuk (perf.)
		cf. xi:nia  (t.v.) "to scatter"; (w)al-xi:ni "to sprinkle, scatter"
		CN xini (Sim.) "caer, desplomarse, destrozarse"
(SD) xini
		xin-ki (pret.)

(C) xi:nia (t.v.)  				regar (p. ej. agua, semilla) (esparcir)
		to sprinkle, to scatter
		xi:nia (pres.)
		xi:nih (pret.)  ni-k-xi:nih "I scattered it"
		xi:nih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. xi:ni (i.v.) "to sprinkle, to scatter, to fall"
		CN cf. xinia (Sim.) "derribar, deshacer, destruir"

(C) -xi:nka  					chingaste (asientos, pozol humedo, residuo, 								sedimento (en un vaso))
		dregs, grounds
		i-xi:nka  "its grounds"
		cf. xi:ni "to scatter, to fall", -ka 'perf. nominalization'

(C) xi:nyu, xi:nyuh   				jiote (impétigo) (xi:ŋyuʔ), (xi:nyuh)
		peeling skin, a skin desease (impetigo (?))
		cf. (?) xi:ni "to scatter, to fall", -yu ('abstraction')
		CN xincayotl (Sim.) "costra de una llaga";  xincayotl  (Mol.) "escama"
(SD) xinyu  	jiote, escama
		peeling skin, skin desease (impetigo (?)); scale
		i-xinyu michin "fish scale(s)"
		i-xinyu ku:ke "skin of iguana"

(C) xin:yu-kwawi-t, i-xi:nyu(h) 		kwawi-t palo jiote (árbol)
		tree sp., "peeling-skin tree" 
		cf. xi:nyu(h) "peeling skin (desease, impetigo (?))", kwawi-t "tree"
		cf. (SD) palosanto

(C) xi:pe:wa (t.v.)  				pelar, descascarar
		to peel, to remove the skin, bark, shell
		xi:pe:wa (pres.) ni-k-xi:pe:wa "I'm peeling it" 
		xi:pe:h (pret.)
		xi:pe:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. xi:pe:wi (i.v.) "to peel"; cf. xipi:nawi "to peel"
		CN xipeua (Sim.) "desollar, descortezar, mondar"
(SD) xi:pewa
		cf. ta-xi:pewa "to be peeling (something)"

(C) xi:pe:wi  					pelarse
		to peel, to get skinned, peeled
		xi:pe:wi (pres.)
		xi:pe:wi-k (pret.)
		xi:pe:h-tuk (perf.)
		cf. xi:pe:wa "to peel"; cf. xipi:nawi "to peel"

(C) xipi:nawi (i.v.)  				pelarse
		to peel, to get skinned
		xipi:nawi (pres.)
		xipi:nawi-k (pret.)
		xipi:nah-tuk (perf.)
		cf. xi:pe:wi "to peel", xi:pe:wa "to peel"
		CN cf. (?) xipintli (Sim.) "prepucio"; xipineuayotequi (?) (Sim.) "circuncidar"
		cf. (SD) xi:pinawi "to slide"

(SD) xi:pinawi (i.v.)  				resbalarse, patinar
		to slide, to slip, to skate 
		xi:pinawi (pres.) 
		xi:pinawi-k (pret.) 
		xi:pinaw-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (C) xipi:nawi "to peel"

(C) xiwi-t 					('año' (?))
		year (?)
		(note: occurs only in se: xiwi-t "last year"
		CN xiwitl (Car.) "año"
(SD) xiwi-t
		(occurs only in se: xiwi-t "last year")

(C) xi:wtek  					iguana dorada
		iguana sp., "golden iguana"
		xihxi:wtek (pl.) 
		CN cf. xiuhtecutli (Sim.) "señor del ano o de la hierba, dios del fuego que tenía 				diversos nombres: ... Cuecaltzin ('little iguana')"

(C) mu-xi:xa (r.v.)  				orinar, mear
		to urinate
		mu-xi:xa (pres.) ni-mu-xi:xa "I'm urinating"
		mu-xi:x-ki (pret.)
		mu-xi:x-tuk (pret.)
		cf. (SD) xi:x-ti "urine"
		CN xixa (Sim.) "ir de vientre"; PN *xi:xa
(SD) mu-xi:xa

(SD) xi:x-ti  					orina, meado
		urine
		-xi:x (poss.)  nu-xi:x "my urine"
		xihxi:xti (pl.) 
		CN cf. xixtli (Sim.) "excremento del hombre"
		cf. (C) a:xi:x

(SD) xolka(h), xolko(h)  			desdentada, desdentado
		toothless
		Sp. xolca, xolco

(C) xu:chi-ku:wa-t  				suchicua, xuchicoa (culebra)
		snake sp., "flower snake"
		cf. xu:chi-t "flower", ku:wa-t "snake"
(SD) xu:chi-ku:wa-t

(C) xu:chi-meka-sala  mecasala (culebra)
		snake sp.
		cf. xu:chi-t "flower", meka-t "vine, cord", sala "pants"

(C) xu:chi-t  					flor
		flower
		-xu:chi-w (poss.) nu-xu:chi-w "my flower"
		xuhxu:chit (pl.) 
		CN xo:chit (Car.); PN *xo:chi 
(SD) xu:chu-t, xu:chi-t 	flor
		flower
		-xu:chu (poss.) nu-xu:chu "my flower"

(SD) xuhxul  					un pájaro
		bird sp., yellow neck, grey body

(SD) mu-xuhxulewa (r.v., redup.)  		restregarselos
		to scrub, to scrape oneself (iterative)
		cf. xulewa "to scrub"
		CN xoxoleua (Sim.) "despellejarse, magullarse"

(Tacuba) xukchin 				jarro 
		jug
		cf. -tsin/-chin 'diminutive'
		CN xoctli "marmita, olla, vasija de barro"

(C) xuku-k  					ácido, agrio (xuguk)
		sour
		xuhxukuk (pl.) 
		cf. xuku-t "hogplum"
		CN xococ (Sim.) "agrio, ácido" (Sim.) xukuk

(SD) xukuk-mu:yu-t  				mosquito muy chiquito (xugukmu:yut)
		very small gnat sp.
		cf. xukuk "sour", mu:yu-t "gnat"

(C) xukumasa:-t  				pepenance (árbol)
		tree sp., a small tree with many branches, round in shape, with thorns
		cf. xuku-t "hogplum", masa:-t "deer"

(C) xuku-t  					jocote (tejocote)
		hogplum
		-xuku (poss.) nu-xuku "my hogplum"
		xuhxukut (pl.) 
		CN xokotl (Car.)
(SD) xuku-t (xugut)
		nu-xukut "my hogplum"

(C) -xu:leh-yu  				marido, esposo
		husband
		nu-xu:leh-yu "my husband"
		cf. xu:re:-t "old man", -yu 'intimate poss.' 
(SD) -xu:leh-yu
		-xuhxu:leh-yu (pl.) 

(C) xulewa (t.v., r.v.)  				restregar, restregarse
		to scrapte, to scrub, to rub
		xulewa (pres.) ki-xulewa "(she) scrubs it", mu-xulewa "(she) scrubs herself"
		xuleh (pret.)
		xuleh-tuk (perf.)
		CN xoleua (Sim.) "despellejarse, magullarse a golpes, contusionarse"
(SD) xulewa (t.v., r.v.)
		xulew(-ki) (pret.)
		xulew-tuk (perf.)
		cf. mu-xuhxulewa "to scrub, to scrape (iterative)"

(C) xuluch-tik  				aguado
		thin, watery
		CN cf. (?) xolochtic (Sim.) "arrugado, doblado, plegado"

(SD) xu:lun   					julón, morro, morrito, jícara, cascarón de huevo, 							cascarón de coco, guacal (cosas huecas)
		gourd bowl or dish, empty shell (e.g. of eggs, coconuts, hollow things)

(C) xu:lu-t  					niño tierno, tiernito (bebé)
		baby, infant
		xuhxu:lut, xuhxu:lumet (pl.) 
		xu:lu-tsin "little baby"
		CN cf. xolo(tl) (Sim.) "paje, joven, joven criado" 
(SD) xu:lu-t

(C) -xumpe  					sombrero
		hat
		nu-xumpe "my hat" (nuxumpeʔ)
		cf. xumpe "mushroom sp." 
		Sp. sombrero
(SD) xumpe

(C) xumpe  					una clase de hongo 
		mushroom sp.
		xuhxumpe (pl.) 
		cf. -xumpe "hat"

(SD) xu:mul  					nido (de gallina) 
		(chicken's) nest 
		i-xu:mul "its nest" 
		i-xu:mul ne tihlan "the chicken's nest"
		CN cf. xomulli (Sim.) "rincón"

(C) xu:pan  					invierno (tempurada de lluvias)
		winter (rainy season)
		CN xo:pan (Car.) "verano"; xopan, xupan (Sim.) "primavera" 
(SD) xu:pan

(C) xupil-in  					grillo
		cricket
		CN chopili(n) (Mol.) 
(SD) xupi:l-in 		grillo, pene de niño cricket; little boy's penis 
		xuhxupi:lin (pl.) 

(C) xu:ré:-t  					anciano
		old man 
		xuhxu:retket (pl.) 
		xu:re:-tsin "old man (reverential)" (viejito)
		cf. -xu:leh-yu "husband"
		CN cf. (?) xoleua (Sim.) "despellejarse, magullarse" 
		cf. (SD) chu:le-t, chu:le-t "old man"

(C) xu:ta (t.v., r.v.)  				herir(se)
		to wound, to be wounded
		xu:ta (pres.)
		xu:ta-k (pret.) ni-mu-xu:ta-k "I got wounded", ni-k-xu:ta-k "I wounded him"
		xu:ta-tuk (perf.)
		CN cf. xo:tla (Car.) "abrasarse, cortar, brotar"; xotla (Sim.) "cortar una tela, hacer 				rayas, aserrar madera"

(C) xuti  					jute (caracol de agua) (xutiʔ)
		water snail
		xuhxuti (pl.) 
(SD) xuti

(C) xuti-kili-t  					santa mariona, santa maría (árbol)
		tree sp., tree with tender buds that are eaten cooked with snails 
		cf. xuti "water snail", kili-t "chipilin plant"
(SD) xuti-kili-t

(SD) xuwwahla:ka-t  				saite, chaite (mata de pitajaya (pitahaya)) 
		cactus sp., pitahaya (?)
		xuhxuwahla:kat (pl.) 
		cf. (?) xuxuwik "green"

(C) xuwil(-)in  				filín, juilín
		fish sp.
		CN xouilin (Sim.) "pez parecido a la trucha"

(SD) xuxuk-nah  				verde
		green
		cf. xuxuwik "green", -nah 'adj.' 
		CN cf. xoxoctic (Sim.) "verde"

(C) xuxuk-tsin  				azul
		blue
		cf. xuxuwik "green", -tsin 'diminutive'

(C) xuxuwi-k  					verde, crudo
		green, unripe, raw cf. xuxuk-tsin "blue" 
		CN xoxouhqui (Sim.) "verde, crudo, azul"; PN *xowi-
(SD) xuxuwi-k
		cf. xuxuk-nah "green"
(C) xuyu:nna  					perdiz (xuyu:ŋnaʔ)
		grouse, partridge (?) 
		xuhxuyu:nna (pl.) 

Y

(C) yaha 					él, ella
		he, she
		ya(h) 'abbreviated form' 
		CN yeʔwa(tl) (Car.)
(SD) yaha

(SD) yahane  					aquel, aquella, aquello 
		that, that one (over there) 
		cf. yaha "he/she", ne "the, that"

(SD) yahini  					éste, ésta, ésto
		this, this one
		cf. yaha "he/she", ini "this"
	
(SD) yahuni  					ése, ésa, éso 
		that, that one
		cf. yaha "he/she", uni "that"
	
(C) -yak  					nariz
		nose
		i-yak "his/her nose" nu-yak "my nose"
		cf. yaka- 'nose' (in compounds)
		CN yakatl (Car.); PN *yaka-
(SD) -yak

(C, SD) yaka- 					'nariz' (en palabras compuestas) 
		'nose' (in compounds)
		CN yakatl (Car.)

(SD) yaka-kutu  				chato 
		stub-nosed, pugnosed 
		cf. yaka- 'nose', kutu "short"
		CN cf. yacacocotoctic (Sim.) "que tiene cortada la nariz", yacacotona (Sim.) "cortar la 			nariz a alguien"
	
(C) yakapatax (n.)  				(el) chato
		stub-nosed or pugnosed person
		cf. yaka- 'nose', (?) pata:wak "wide"
	
(C) yakapatax-nah (adj.)  			chato
		stub-nosed, pugnosed
		cf. yakapatax "pugnosed", -nah 'adj.'

(SD) mu-yaka-pitsa (r.v., incorp.)  		sonarse la nariz 
		to blow one's nose
		cf. yaka- 'nose', pitsa "to blow (whistle)" 
		cf. (C) mu-yakatsulki:xtia
	
(C) -yakatsul  					moco
		mucus, snot
		nu-yakatsul "my mucus" (nuyagatsuł)
		cf. yaka- 'nose'
(SD) -yakatsul

(C) mu-yakatsul-ki:xtia (r.v., incorp.)  	sonarse la nariz 
		to blow one's nose
		cf. yakatsul "mucus", ki:xtia "to get out"

(C) ya:luwa  					ayer (ya:luwaʔ)
		yesterday
		cf. ya:luwa ka tayuwa "last night"
		CN ya:lwa (Car.); PN *ya:lwa
(SD) ya(:)luwa

(C) ya:luwa ka tayuwa  			anoche
		last night
		cf. ya:luwa "yesterday", ka "in", tayuwa "night"

(C) yama:ni-k  				blando, suave, aguado
		bland, soft, mushy
		yahyama:nik (pl.) 
		cf. yama:niya "to soften"; yamanka "warm"
		CN ya:ma:nki (Car.); yamanqui (Sim.) "blando, tierno, ligero" 
(SD) yama:ni-k

(C) yama:niya (i.v.)  				ablandarse
		to soften, to become soft, bland
		yama:niya (pres.)
		yama:niya-k (pret.)
		yama:niya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. yama:ni-k "soft", -ya 'inchoative'
		CN yama:niya  (Car.) "estar templado"; yamania (Sim.) "ser moderado, calmado, 				apacible, ablandar, suavizar"
(SD) yama:niya

(C) yamanka  					tibio
		warm
		cf. yama:nik "bland, soft"; yama:niya "to soften", -ka 'perf. nominalization" (?)
		CN yamanca (Sim.) "blandamente"
(C) yankwi-k  					nuevo
		new
		yahyankwik (pl.) 
		yankwik ne nu-sala "my pants are new"
		CN yankwik (Car.)
(SD) yankwi-k

(C) yanurah 					llano
		plain

(Ataco) yapuk  				un pájaro verde
		bird sp., green, makes its hole in the cliff walls

(C) yawal (n.)   			yagual (un trapo puesto en forma de círculo  para 							colocar tinajas, ollas, cántaros en la cabeza para 							cargarlos o para ponerlos en el suelo)
		a piece of cloth coiled upon which to place water jugs and pots either to carry them 		on one's head or to put them on the ground/floor
		-yawal (poss.) 
		yahyawal (pl.) 
		cf. -tsun-yawal "water-jug cloth"; yawal-nah "round", mu-yawalua "to roll"
		CN yaualli (Sim.) "almohadilla de marmita, de cantaro" 
(SD) yawal

(C) yawal-nah  				redondo (como comal) (circular)
		round, circular (round like a griddle) 
		cf. yawal "water-jug cloth", -nah 'adj.' 
		CN cf. yaualtic (Sim.) "redondo, esferico, convexo"

(C) mu-yawalua (r.v.)  			arrollarse (enroscarse)
		to roll up, to curl up, to coil
		mu-yawalua (pres.)
		mu-yawaluh (pret.)
		mu-yawaluh-tuk (perf.)
		cf. yawal "water-jug cloth", yawal-nah "round"
		CN yaualoa (Sim.) "enrollarse"
(SD) yawalua (t.v., r.v.) 	dar(se) vueltas (girar, rodar)
		to turn around, to spin
		ni-k-yawalua "I'm turning it around", ni-mu-yawalua "I'm turning, I'm spinning 				around"

(C) ya:wepta  					antier, anteayer
		day before yesterday
		cf. wi:pta "day after tomorrow"
		CN yeouiptla (Mol.); yeueyupan (Sim.) 
		cf. (SD) yepta, bie:pta
(C) yawi (i.v., irregular)  			ir
		to go (irregular)
		niyawi, ni-yaw, ni-yu, n-u  "I'm going, I go" ti-yawi-t "we are going, we go" 
		n-u ni-yu "I'm going to go" 
		ni-ya:h-ki "I went" 
		ni-yah-tuk "I have gone" 
		ni-ya-skiya "I would go"
		CN yaw (Car.), yawi (UC) 
(SD) yawi

(C) yehemet  					ellos
		they
		ye(:)met 'abbreiviated form' 
		CN yeʔwa:ntin (Car.)
(SD) yehemet

(SD) yehka  					camarón hembra (yehkaʔ) 
		female shrimp
		yehyehka (pl.) 

(C) yehkan  					sólo (?), derecho
		alone (?), right cf. (?) ye:k "good" 
		cf. -ma:-yehkan "right hand"
		cf. ka -yehkan "to the right" (ka nu-yehkan "to my right") 
		cf. yehka:ya "that's true"
		CN cf. yeccantli (Sim.) "lado derecho"

(C) yehka:ya  					es verdad
		it's the truth, that's true
		cf. (?) ye:k "good"

(C) mu-yehye:k-chiwa (r.v., incorp., redup.) 		componerse la ropa
		for clothes to turn out right, to be fixed well
		cf. ye:k "good", -chiwa "to do, to make"
		cf. (SD) mu-yehye:ktia "to delouse, to get rid of fleas"

(SD) mu-yehye:ktia (r.v., redup.) 		despulgarse
		to get rid of fleas, to delouse
		mu-yehye:ktia (pres.)
		mu-yehye:ktih (pret.)
		mu-yehye:ktih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ye:k "good", -tia 'caus.'
		cf. ye:ktiya "to be fixed, to turn out right"
		cf. (C) mu-yehye:k-chiwa "for clothes to turn out right"

(C) yehye:wa ika  				por ratos
		at times, somewhat earlier (?)
		cf. ye:wa "earlier the same day", ika "therefore, sometimes"

(C) yehyé:y  					tres cada uno
		three each
		cf. ye:y "three"

(C) ye:k  					bueno
		yehye:k (pl.) 
		ye:k- (Car.); yectli (Sim.) "bueno, virtuoso, justo"
(SD) ye:k

(C) -ye:kah-yu   				sombra
		shadow (of a person), shade (of a tree)
		nu-ye:kah-yu "my shadow" (-yu 'intimate poss.' (?)) 
		CN ecauhyotl (Mol.)
		cf. (SD) -yekaw-yu

(C) ye:kawi (i.v.)  				terminarse (p. ej. el trabajo, una milpa) 
		to end, to finish, to terminate (e.g. work, a field) 
		ye:kawi (pres.)
		ye:kawi-k (pret.) ye:kawi-k "it ended" (ye:gawiʔ)
		ye:kah-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) ye:k "good"
		CN yecaui (Sim.) "terminarse, acabarse"
(SD) ye:kawi
		ye:kaw-tuk (perf.)

(SD) -yekaw-yu  				sombra
		shadow
		mu-yekaw-yu "your shadow" 
		-yehyekaw-yu (pl.) 
		CN ecauhyotl (Mol.)
		cf. (C) -ye:kah-yu

(SD) ye:ktia (t.v.)  				despulgar, limpiar (milpa, piojos, pulgas) 
		to delouse, to get rid of fleas, to clean, to pick 
		ye:ktia (pres.)
		ye:ktih (pret.) ni-k-ye:ktih "I deloused him, I cleaned it"
		ye:ktih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ye:k "good", -tia 'caus.'
		cf. ye:ktiya "to turn out right, to improve"
		CN yectia (SD) "limpiar, purificar alguna cosa"

(C) ye:ktiya (i.v.)  				componerse
		to get better, to turn out right, to improve, to become correct   
		ye:ktiya (pres.)
		ye:ktiya-k (pret.)
		ye:kitiya-tuk (perf.)
		cf. ye:k "good"; ye:ktia "to delouse, to clean"; -ya 'inchoaative'
		CN yectia (Sim.) "hacerse bueno, llegar a ser mejor" 
		cf. mu-yehye:k-chiwa "for clothes to come out right"
(SD) ye:ktiya (i.v.) 	sanarse, mejorarse
		to recover, to get better, to improve
		cf. mu-ye:ktia "to delouse, to clean", mu-yehye:ktia "to delouse"
	
(C) ye:k-tsin  					buena gente (persona justa, amable)
		good person, nice person
		cf. ye:k "good", -tsin 'diminutive'
	
(SD) -yemah-yu  				yema del dedo
		fleshy part of finger tip
		i-yemah-yu "his/her fleshy part of finger"
		Sp. yema, -yu 'intimate poss.'
	
(SD) yena(h)  					llena (de la luna)
		full (of the moon)
		Sp. llena
	
(SD) yepta, bie:pta  				antier, anteayer
		day before yesterday, three days ago
		cf. wi:pta "day after tomorrow"
		CN yeouiptla (Mol.), yeueyupan (Sim.) 
		cf. (C) ya:wepta
	
(SD) yerbabwuena(h)  			yerbabuena, hierbabuena
		mint
		Sp. hierbabuena

(C) ye:wa  					dende hoy (anteriormente en el mismo dia, hace 							un rato, poco antes) (ye:waʔ)
		earlier the same day, a short while ago, shortly before
		cf. yehye:wa ika "somewhat earlier, at times"
		CN ye:wa (Car.) "hace poco"; yeua (Sim.) "luego, hace un instante, poco antes"
	
(C) ye:wah  					yegua
		mare
		Sp. yegua

(C) ye:y  					tres 
		three
		cf. yehyé:y "three each"
		CN (y)e:(y)i (Car.); ei, yei (Sim.) ; PN *e:yi 
(SD) ye:y
	
(SD) yinhibre(h)  				jengibre
		ginger
		Sp. jengibre
	
(SD) yuguh  					yugo
		yoke
		Sp. yugo

(C, SD) yu(:)l- 				'corazón' (en palabras compuestas) 
		'heart' (in compounds)
	
(C) -yu(:)l  					corazón
		heart
		nu-yul "my heart"
		i-yul kwawi-t "tree heart" 
		CN yo:llotl (Car.)
		cf. (SD) -yu(:)lu

(C) yu:li-k  					despacio, suave
		slow, soft
		yuhyu:lik (pl.) 
		CN yo:lik (Car.) "mansamente"; yolic (Sim.) "tranquilamente, poco a poco, a 				menudo"; PN *yo:li:-k
(SD) yu:li-k

(C) yuliksu-t  					isote, izote
		plant sp., like yucca (?)
		cf. (?) yul- 'heart', iksu-t "izote"
		CN cf. iccotl (Sim.) "palmera de las montañas"

(C) yul-kakasiwi (adj.)  			desesperado, con aflicción
		troubled, with despair, sorrowful, grieved
		cf. yul- 'heart', mu-kakasua "to be troubled"

(SD) yu:l-kwi (t.v., r.v.)  			revivir
		to revive, to come to life"
		cf. yu:l- 'heart', kwi "to grab"
		mu-yu:lkwih "(he/she) revived, came to life" 

(SD) yu:l-miki (i.v.)  				dar ataque (tener un ataque cardíaco) 
		to have a heart attack
		cf. yu:l- "heart", miki "to die"
(C) yu:ltamal  					tamal de elote
		tamale of fresh corn
		cf. (?) yu:lik "bland", tamal "tortilla"

(C) yul-tata (i.v., incorp.)  			tener agruras 
		to have acid stomach, heartburn
		cf. yul- 'heart', tata "to burn"

(C) yu:ltia (t.v., r.v.)  				llenar con to fill with
		yu:ltia (pres.)
		yu:ltih (pret.) ni-k-yu:ltih "I filled it", mu-yu:ltih "it filled"
		yu:ltih-tuk (perf.)
		cf. (?) yu:l- 'heart', -tia 'caus.'

(C) yultihtika (i.v., irregular (?))  		palpitar
		for the heart to beat, palpitate
		(note: appears only in the present tense (?)) 
		niyultihtika "my heart is beating, palpitating" 
		cf. yul- 'heart'
		CN cf. (?) titipan (Mol.) "encima del vientre", titicpa quica "procede de lo interior de 			nosotros"

(C) yu(:)ltuk  					vivo
		alive
		cf. yu(:)l- 'heart', -tuk 'perf. (adj.)' 
(SD) yu(:)tuk

(SD) -yu(:)lu  					corazón
		heart
		nu-yulu "my heart" (nuyuluʔ)
		cf. yu(:)l- 'heart' (in compounds)
		CN yo:llotl (Car.)
		cf. (C) -yu(:)l

(SD) yuntah  					yunta
		pair of work animals, team of animals
		Sp. yunta

(SD) yuwaki (adj.)  				opaco, nublado
		overcast, dark
		cf. tayuwa "at night"
		CN cf. youaquia (Sim.) "ser de noche"

(C) yuyumuka (i.v.) 				picar, tener picazón, picar el comezón 
		to itch
		yuyumuka (pres.)
		yuyumuka-k (pret.) (?)
		yuyumuka-tuk (perf.) (?)      
		CN yoyomoca (Mol.) "tener comezon"
(SD) yuyumuka
		cf. yuyumukalis "foot fungus"

(SD) yuyumukalis  				mazamorra (hongos de pie que pican mucho) 
		a foot fungus that itches a lot
		cf. yuyumuka "to itch", -li-s 'nominalization'

Chapter 6

Spanish-Pipil Dictionary
	
6.0 	Introduction  
	
		This chapter is in essence a Spanish-Pipil dictionary, although English glosses are also provided for the many entries. It does not contain full information for each entry, but rather is intended as  something of a ready index to the full entries contained  in chapter 5 (the Pipil-Spanish-English dictionary). The same symbols and abbreviations used in chapter 5 are again employed here.  

A

a, en, donde
	at, in
		ka (C, SD) 

a donde (a o en la casa de alguien) 
	at, at someone's (house, place) 
		ka -chan (C, SD) 
	
a gatas 
	on all fours, crawling
		tupuk (C)
	
a la derecha
	to the right, on the right
		ka -yehkan (C) 
	
a la mar, al mar
	to the sea, to the ocean 
		ka:la:ma:l (SD) 
	
a la orilla
	at the edge, on the brink 
		tate:mpan (C, SD) 
	
a la puerca!
	son-of-a-gun! 
		a-la-pwerkah (SD) 
	
a pie
	on foot
		ikxipan (C) 
a saber, saber, quien sabe
	who knows, it remains to be seen, I don't know 
		ka ke:n (C) 
		tesu ki-mati (SD) 

abajo
	under, beneath, below 
		katani (C, SD) 
		-tan (C) "abajo de, debajo de, bajo de" 
		-tankupa (C) "abajo de"

abanicar, abanicarse
	to fan (oneself)
		i:xpitsa (SD)  "abanicar"
		mu-ahkape:wia (C) "abanicarse, mosquear" 
		mu-pe:wia (C) "abanicarse, soplarse"

abdomen, barriga
	belly, abdomen, stomach
		ihti (C, SD) 

ablandarse

to soften, to become
	soft, bland 
		yama:niya (C, SD) 

abogado
	lawyer
		abogado(h) (SD) 

abrazar      
	to embrace, to hug
		na:palua (C) 
		napalua (SD) 
		tana:palua (C) "estar abrazando, abrazar (algo)" 
		tanapalua (SD) "estar abrzando, abrazar (algo)"

abrigo, chumpa, chaqueta
	jacket, coat
		chumpah (SD) 

abrir
	to open
		pe:lua (C) 
		pelua (SD) 
		tapelua (SD) "abrir (algo)"
		tapuwa (tapua (?)) (C, SD)  (t.v.)

abrir agujero, hoyo; hacer hoyo; abrirse agujero, hoyo 
	to make a hole, to open a hole
		kuyuna (SD) "abrir agujero, hoyo"
		kuyunia (C) "abrir agujero, hoyo" 
		kuyuni (C) "abrirse hoyo, agujero"
		takuyuna (C, SD) "estar abriendo agujero, hoyo"

abrir la boca
	to open one's mouth
		mu-te:mpe:lua (C) 

abrir la camisa
	to open one's shirt 
		mupetawa (SD) 

abrir la cueva (el cangrejo) 
	(for a crab) to open its cave 
		mu-kaltapa:na (C) 

abrir las manos, las pinzas (tenazas) 
	to open hands, pinchers 
		mu-ma:pe:lua (C) 

abrir los ojos por primera vez (los animales), mirar
	(for animals) to open  their eyes for the first time, to see 
		tachiya (SD) 

abrir mas
	to open more, wider
		i:xpe:lua (C, SD) 

abrirse, rajarse, romperse
	to open, to split open, to break
		i:xtsaya:ni (SD) 

abuela 
	grandmother
		-lama (C) 
		nanauwela, nanawelita (Ataco) 
		no:yah (SD) 

abuelo
	grandfather
		tahtay (Ataco) "abuelo, tio" 
		tata-noy (SD) "abuelo"

abundar
	to abound, to be in abundance, for there to be a lot
		sama:wa (C, SD) 
		tepe:wi (SD) "abundar, haber bastante"

acabar, terminar; acabarse, terminarse
	to end, to terminate, to run out (of)
		tami (C, SD) "acabarse, terminarse"
		tamia (C, SD) "acabar, terminar"

acapatal (lugar de acapates)
	place of acapate plants
		ahkapata:l (C) 

acapate, alcapate (acapacle) "acapate" 
	plant
		ahkapah (C, SD) 

acapetate
	mat with figures/pictures woven in 
		a:kapeta-t (C, SD) 

acarrear
	to cart, to carry
		sahsaka (C, SD) 
		tasahsaka (C, SD) "estar acarreando, acarrear (algo)"

acercar, acercarse
	to approach, to come near(er), to place near(er)
		ahxitia (C) "acercar, arrimar"
		(w)altsinki:sa (SD) "acercarse"

acido, agrio
	sour
		xukuk (C, SD) 

aclararse
	to clear up
		tachiya (SD) "aclararse (el cielo, el sol)
		tane:si (C), (SD (?)) "aclararse el dia (amanecer)"

acobijar, encobijar, enchivar; abcobijarse, encobijarse, enchivarse 
	to cover (oneself) with a blanket
		kwe:ntia (C, SD) (t.v.)
		mu-kwe:ntia (C, SD) (r.v.)
		take:ntia (C) "estar encobijando, acobijar (algo)"

acoloreando, acoloreado (adj.)
	reddened, beginning to ripen 
		chihchi:lihtuk (SD) 

acoloradear, hacer rojo
	to redden, to color red 
		chi:chi:ltia (C) 
		chihchi:ltia (SD) 

acloradearse, enrojecerse
	to redden, to turn red 
		chi:chi:ltiya (C) 
		chihchi:ltiya (SD) 

acomodar, dar trabajo, hacer casa (para alguien) 
	to accommodate, to provide work for, to give housing
		ta:ke:wa (C, SD) 

aconsejar
	to advise, to counsel
		nawatia (C, SD) 
		tanawatia (C, SD) "estar aconsejando, aconsejar (algo)"

acordar, acordarse de
	to remember
		elna:miki (C, SD) (t.v.) 
		i:xkehketsa (C) "acordarse, pensar"

acostar, acostarse
	to lay down, to lie down      
		mela:wa (C) (t.v., r.v.) 
		mu-te:ka (C, SD) "acostarse" 
		te:ka (C) "acostar, poner al suelo, dejar al suelo"

acostar(se) boca arriba
	to lie/lay down face up (on one's/its back)
		i:xahketsua (SD) (t.v., r.v.)

acostarse de lado
	to lie on one's side
		mu-chiwa ladiar (SD) 

acostumbrarse
	to get used to, to become accustomed to
		mu-mati (C) 

acurrucado
	squatting, crouching
		tsinmuetstuk (C) 
		tsinmuestuk (SD) "acurrucado en cuclillas"

acurrucarse
	to crouch, to squat
		mu-tsinta:lia (C, SD) "acurrucarse, sentarse, ir sentando" 
		mu-tsukulua (C) "acurrucarse"

achiote, bija
	bixa, annotto (a food-coloring condiment)
		a:chiyu-t (C) 
		a:chi:yu-t (SD) 

adelgazar, sencillar, refinar (hacer mas delgado) 
	to make thinner, simpler, skinnier
		pitsakua (C) 
		tapitsakua (C) "adelgazar (algo)"

adentro
	inside
		ihtik (C, SD) 
		ka-ihtik (C) 
		kalihtik (C) 

adios
	goodbye
		niyawa  (C)  "adios"  (dicho por la persona que sale  o  que saluda antes)
		niyawa  tel (C) "adios" (dicho por la persona que sale o que saluda antes)
		xa:wa "adios" (contestacion)
		xa:wa tel "adios" (contestacion)

adivinar, imaginar
	to guess, to imagine
		tamati (C) 

adobe
	adobe, adobe brick
		adobe(h) (SD) 
		lagriyuh (SD) "adobe, ladrillo"

adonde?    
	where to?
		ka:nka (C, SD) 

adorar
	to worship, to adore
		-chiwa adorar
		te:nna:miki (C) "adorar, venerar, besar"
		tate:nna:miki (C) "adorar (algo),  estar  adorando;  venerar (algo); besar (algo)"

adormecer, hacer dormir
	to put to sleep, to get (someone) to sleep
		kuchte:ka (C) 
		kuchteka (SD) 

afate, ajuate (polvillo o basura de maicillo, arroz, etc.) 
	chaff or dust of sorghum, rice, etc. which is blown or fanned to get rid of it
		ahwa-t (C, SD) 

afeitar, afeitarse, rasurar, rasurarse
	to shave
		mu-chiwa nabahiar (SD) "afeitarse, rasurarse" 
		te:nxi:ma (C) (t.v., r.v.)

afilar
	to sharpen
		tantia (C, SD) 
		tatantia (SD) "estar afilando, afilar (algo)"

aflojar, aflojarse
	to loosen
		ka:xani (SD) "aflojarse"
		kaxa:nia (C) "aflojar"
		takapaxua (C) "aflojar (algo)" 
		takaxa:nia (C) aflojar (algo)"

agachado, empinado
	bending down, leaning, crouching
		i:xpi:lka (SD) 

agachar, agacharse
	to bend down, to crouch
		i:xpilua (SD) (t.v., r.v.) 
		mu-nekwilua (C) "agacharse" 
		mu-patachua (C) "agacharse, aguasaparse" 
		tsumpilua (SD) "agachar, poner cabeza abajo" 
		tatsumpilua "agachar (algo), poner (algo) cabeza abajo" 
		tsuntu:ka (C) (t.v., r.v.)

agarrar
	to grab, to take
		(w)alkwi (SD) 
		a:na (C) itskia (C, SD) 
		kwi (C, SD) 

agruras (tener) 
	heartburn
		yultata (C) "tener agruras"

agrio, acido
	sour
		xukuk (C, SD) 

agua
	water
		a:-t (C, SD) 

agua caliente
	hot water
		apsul (C) 
		a:t tutu:n (SD) 

Agua Con Basura (un rio) 
	"Water-with-trash" (name of a river) 
		tahsul-a:t (C) 

agua de coco
	coconut juice      
		iya:yu koko (i-a:-yu koko) (SD) 

Agua de Gato, Amistan (lugar)
	"Cat water/river", "Amistan" (place name)
		a:mistan

aguacate
	avocado
		a:waka-t (C, SD) 

aguacero
	strong rainstorm, thunderstorm
		awahe (SD) 
		tapa:yawit (C) "aguacero, temporal" 
		tapayawit (SD) "aguacero, temporal"

aguado
	watery, runny, liquid
		xuluchtik (C) 
		yama:nik (C, SD) "aguado, blando, suave"

aguantar
	to abide, to withstand, to put up with, to stand 
		e:ku(w)a (SD) 
		selia (C, SD) 

aguarapar,  apalastar, aplastarse, reducirse una parte del cuerpo o de planta
	to flatten, to reduce, to shrivel in part
		ma:lachua (SD) (t.v., r.v.)

aguasaparse,  agacharse (para evitar algo, p. ej. para ir debajo de una rama) 
	to duck, to stoop
		mu-patachua (C) 

aguate, bellota
	bud, banana flower, sorghum flower, acorn (?)
		a:wa-t (SD) 

aguera (queda agua) (?)
	watery, runny
		iya:w (C) 

aguila
	eagle
		agila (SD) 

ahi, por ah
	there, over there 
		ikuni (SD) 

ahi, alli, alla 
	there
		ne: (SD) 
		ne:pa (C) 

ah' no mas
	right there
		uni-san (SD) 

ahijada
	goddaughter
		aihadah, eihadah (SD) 

ahijado
	godson
		aihaduh, eihaduh (SD) 

ahogarse
	to drown, to choke 
		a:mesawi (C) 
		a:tuki (SD) 

ahora, hoy
	now, today
		a:n (SD) 
		a(:)xa(:)n (SD) 
		seman (SD) 
		san (SD) "ahora"

ahoyar, hacer hoyo
	to make a hole
		-chiwa oyoh (SD) 

ahumado, humoso
	smokey, smoked
		pukyuhtuk (C) 

ahumar
	to smoke
		pukwia (C, SD) 
		puhyua (C) 
		tapukwia (C) "estar ahumando, ahumar (algo)" 

aire,  viento, norte
	wind
		eheka-t (C, SD) 

ajalin (clase de cangrejo)
	sand crab
		a:xa:lin (SD) 
		a:xa:ltekwisih (C) 

ajeno 
	foreign, someone else's 
		te:pal (C) 
		tepal (SD) 
ajo
	garlic
		a:hu (SD) 
		a:hus (C) 

ajonjoli
	sesame
		ahonholin (SD) 

ajuate, afate (polvillo o basura de maicillo, arroz, etc.) 
	chaff or dust of sorghum,  rice,  etc. which is blown or fanned to get rid of it
		ahwa-t (C, SD) 

al interior, a la orilla
	at the edge, to the interior
		tate:mpan (SD) 

al lado de
	beside, along, next to
		-nakastan (SD) 

al reves
	backwards, opposite
		ka i-teputs (C) 

al sur, abajo 
	below, to the south 
		katani

ala, aleta
	wing, fin
		-ehtapal (C, SD) 

alacran
	scorpion
		ku:lu-t (C, SD) 

alacran (constelacion)
	a constellation ("scorpion") 
		si:tal alakran (SD) 

alambre
	wire
		alambre(h) (SD) 

albanil
	mason, builder
		albanyil (SD) 

alberja, arbeja, chicaro, guisante 
	pea(s)
		perumet, pernket (SD) 

albino, hijo del sol
	albino
		i:xmu:hmuts (C) 

alborotado
	mussed up, unkempt
		ku:pahsulnah (SD) "alborotado (el pelo), grenudo" 
		tsumpahsul (SD) "alborotado (el pelo), despeinado"

alborotar, alborotarse
	to swarm, to excite/get excited
		mu-kaltapa:na (SD) "alborotar (p. ej. hormiguero, abejero) 
		ku:mu:nia (C) "alborotar"
		kumu:ntia (SD) "alborotar" 
		ku:mu:ni (C) "alborotar" 
		kumu:ni (SD)  "alborotarse" 
		mu-pahsuluaa (C) "alborotarse (el pelo)"

alcaldia (presidencia municipal)
	town hall, city hall
		ka:bi:lduh (C, SD) 

alcanzar
	to reach, to catch up with
		ahsi (C, SD) "alcanzar, llegar, hallar, encontrar, caber" 
		(w)alahsi (SD) 
		ikxahsi (SD) 

alegrarse, estar alegre/contento
	to be happy, to become happy, to rejoice 
		pahpa:ki (C) 

alegre
	happy, fun
		alegre(h) (SD) 
		tepakti(h) (SD) 

alegre (estar)
	to be happy, to rejoice
		pa:ki (C) "estar alegre"
		pahpa:ki (C) "estar alegre, alegrarse"

alero
	nook, cranny
		tuskatan (C, SD) 

aleta, ala
	fin, wing
		-ehtapal (C, SD) 

aletear (volar en la brisa)
	to flap (to flap in the breeze)
		ahkapata:ni (C) 

algodon
	cotton
		ichka-t (C, SD) 

algodon de ave (pelusa)
	down (of feathers)
		kamu:sa (SD) 

alguacil
	(auxiliary) policeman
		alwa:sil (C, SD) 

alguaxte (semilla de calabaza)
	squashseed
		ayuhwach (C, SD) 

'alguien' (prefijo 'objecto no-especificado humano') 
	'someone', 'somebody' ('unspecified human object') 
		te:- (C) 
		te- (SD) 

alguien, alguno 
	someone, somebody 
		ahakah (SD) 
		ka:kah (C) 

alguno, alguien 
	someone, somebody 
		ahakah (SD) 
		ka:kah (C) 

aliento, (mal) olor 
	breath, (bad) smell 
		-ihiyu (C, SD) 

alisar, repellar (p. ej. pared)
	to smooth, to finish the surface
		ma:ti:lua (C) 
		petstilia (SD) "alisar (p. ej. comales, ollas con una piedrita)"

alma, anima
	soul
		a:lmah (C) 

almendra (arbol)
	almond (tree)
		almendres (SD) 

almidonado, tieso, duro
	starched, stiff, hard
		tsitsi:ntik (C, SD) 

almohada (cojin)
	pillow, cushion 
		kwahtetun (C, SD) 

altar
	altar
		altal (C) 
		altar (C, SD) 

alto
	high, tall
		ahku (SD) 
		-kahku (SD) "alto, trepado"
		ku:htik (C) "alto, crecido"

alumbrar
	to shine, to light (up), to illuminate 
		ka:wa:ni (C) "alumbrar, brillar" 
		ta:wilua (C, SD) 
		tata:wilua (C) "alumbrar (algo), brillar"

alzadero
	storage hook, storage place
		cha:kwahtsin (C) "alzadero, gancho"
		tsatsas (C) "alzadero"
alzar
	to put up, to put away, to store, to pick up
		ahke:wa (C) "alzar, guardar"
		ta:hke:wa (C) "alzar (algo), guardar (algo)"
		takimiltia (C, SD) "alzar, cargar, ayudar a poner una carga"  

alla, alli, ahi
	there
		ne: (SD) 
		ne:pa (C) 

ama de leche, nodriza 
	wetnurse
		chichiwah (SD) 

amanecer
	to dawn
		tane:si (C, SD) 
		tatwi (C, SD) 

amanecer (al)
	at dawn, upon rising 
		ka tatwi (C) "al amanecer"

amante, enamorado
	lover
		enamorado(h) (C) 

amar, querer, estimar
	to love, to esteem
		tasuhta (C, SD) 

amargarse 
	to become bitter, to turn bitter 
		chichiktiya (C) 
		chichiya (C, SD) 

amargo 
	bitter
		chichik (C, SD) 

amarillento, amarilloso
	yellowish
		tultiknah (C) 

amarillo
	yellow
		tultik (C, SD) 

amarilloso (amarillento)
	yellowish
		tultiknah (C) 

amarrar
	to tie
		ilpia (C, SD) 
		tailpia (C) "amarrar (algo)"

amarrar con pita (mecate), hacer tapesco, arreglar, empenar 
	to tie with string, to make something with netting, to assemble, to put together
		pi:ki (C, SD) 

amarrar muy apretado, socar
	to tighten, to tie tightly
		tetilia (SD) 

amate
	"amate" tree (fig sp.)
		a:ma-t (C, SD) 

amatillo
	small "amate" tree (fig sp.) 
		kuki:xtilu:ni (C) 

ambos
	both
		uhu:me (C, SD) 

Amistan, Agua de Gato (lugar)
	Amistan, "Cat water/river" (place name)
		a:mistan

amo, patron
	master, boss
			a:mu(h) (SD) 

amontonar
	to pile up, to gather together, to heap up 
		pu:tsua (C) "amontonar, juntar"
		putsua (SD) "amontonar, juntar" 
		se:ntepe:wa (C) 
		tepe:wa (SD) 
amontonarselo, darle bastante
	to heap on, to pile on     
		tepe:wilia (C) 

ampliar (lodo, harina, para hacer comal), extender 
	to add to, to extend, to amplify (e.g. mud of flour)
		tete(:)wa (SD) 

ampolla
	blister
		ampo(:)yah (SD) 

anciana
	old woman
		lamahtsin (C) 
		lama:chin (SD) 
		lama-t (SD) 
		lamah (SD) 

anciano, viejito
	old man
		-kuhkul (C, Comazagua) (respetuoso) 
		xu:re:-t (C) 

anchar, extender, tender
	to widen, to extend, to stretch
		pata:wa (C, SD) 

ancharse, volverse mas ancho
	to become wider, to widen
		pata:waya (SD) 

ancho
	wide
		pata:wak (C, SD) 

ancho (de cosas huecas, hoyos)
	wide (of hollow things, holes)
		kuya:wak (C, SD) 

andar, caminar
	to walk
		nehnemi (C, SD) 

andar a gatas, gatear
	to crawl, to go on all fours
		mu-ma:pelua (SD) 

andar a tientas, pararse en puntillas (empinarse) 
	to walk/go by feeling one's way, to stand on tiptoes to reach something
		mu-tsihkwilua (SD) 

aneblinado, neblinado
	foggy
		mixte:ntuk (C) 

angel
	angel
		anhel (C) 

angosto, estrecho
	narrow
		u:chulnah (C) 

anguila, anguilla
	eel
		a:ku:wa-t (C) 
		michinku(:)wa-t (SD) 

anillo
	ring
		a:ni:yuh (C) 

anima, alma
	soul
		a:lmah (C) 
		
animalito peludo con antena 
	fuzzy insect with antenna 
		ikax-kabayuh (SD) 

ano, culo 
	anus, arse, ass
		tsupi (C) 

anoche
	last night
		ya:luwa ka tayuwa (C) 

anona (cf. zapote) anona colorada
	red anona, red custard apple (?)
		chu:lu (SD)  
'antes' (particula 'imperfectivo') 
	'before' ('imperfective' particle) 
		katka (C, SD) 

antier, anteayer
	day before yesterday
		ya:wepta (C) 
		bie:pta, yepta (SD) 

antiguo, antiguamente
	long ago, anciently, in olden days/times 
		ikma:n (C) 
		ikman (SD) 

ano pasado
	last year
		se: xiwi-t (C, SD) "el ano pasado"

apachar (oprimir, aplastar)
	to hold down, to press, to flatten
		ku:pachua (C, SD) 
		pachua (SD) 
		taku:pachua (C) "estar apachando, apachar (algo)" 
		tapachua (SD) "estar apachando, apachar (algo)"

apacharse, estar apachandose (aplastarse, oprimirse)
	to be flattened, to be held down, to be pressed
		mu-pahpachua (C) 

apagacandela (mariposa nocturna), mariposa
	moth, butterfly
		pa:pa:lu:-t (C) 
		pa:pa:lu-t (SD)

apagar, apagarse
	to extinguish, to put out, to be extinguished, to go out 
		se:wi (C) (i.v.)
		se:wi (SD) (t.v.)
		se:wia (C) (t.v.)

apapachar en el regazo, chinear en la pierna 
	to hold on one's lap
		metspanua (C) 

aparecer, aparecerse
	to appear, to be seen
		ne:si (C, SD) "aparecerse"
		ne:xtia (C, SD) "aparecer, dejar verse" 
		(w)alne:si (C) "aparecerse"

apariencia (clase de cara), el ser (de uno) 
	appearance, one's form, one's being 
		tachalis (SD) 

apartar, quitar, trasladar
	to set aside, to remove, to transfer
		ihkwani (SD) 
		ihkwania (C, SD) 

aparte, separado
	apart, separated
		-kwah (C) 

apear, bajar
	to lower, to get (something) down
		temultia (C, SD) 

apedrar
	to stone, to throw rocks at
		tehtemi:ma (SD) 

apellido
	surname, family name, last name 
		-tsuntu:kay (SD) 
		-tsuntu:key (C) 

apenado, molesto 
	troubled, bothered 
		mu-kakasuhtuk

apestar, heder
	to stink
		ihya:ya (C, SD) 

apestoso, hediondo 
	stinking
		ihyak (C, SD) 

aplastar, aplastarse
	to flatten
		ma:lachua  (SD) (t.v.,  r.v.) "aplastar(se),  aguarapar(se), apachar(se)"
		pachua (SD) "aplastar, oprimir, apachar"
aplaudir
	to applaud
		-chiwa palmar (SD) 

aporrear, pegar, golpear, castigar, azotar
	to beat, to hit, to whip, to punish
		witeki (C, SD) 
		tawiteki (C, SD) "estar castigando, golpeando"

aprender
	to learn
		mu-machtia (C, SD) 

apretado, estrecha (de una camisa)
	tight, small (e.g. a shirt)
		ku:pitsaktsin (C) 
		ku:pitsa:wak (C) 

apretar
	to tighten
		pitsini (SD) 
		pitsinia (C) 

apreton de manos (dar la mano) 
	handshake
		ketal (SD) 

apurar, apurarse
	to hurry
		ihisiwi (SD) "apurarse" 
		ihisiwitia (SD) (t.v.) "apurar"
		 nehne:lwia (C) (t.v.) 'apurar" 
		ne:lwia (C) (t.v., r.v.) "apurar, apurarse" 
		uhu:lini (SD) "apurarse, menearse, moverse" 
		(w)al-mu-ne:lwia (C) "apurarse"

aquel, aquella, aquello
	that, that one
		ne:ne: (C) 
		uni (C, SD) 
		yahane (SD) 

aqui
	here
		ni:kan (C)
		nikan (SD) 
		nin (SD) 

arana 
	spider
		tuka-t (C, SD) 

arar
	to plow
		mulu:nia (C) "arar, esponjar"
		tapa:na (SD) "arar, reventar"

arbeja, alberja, chicharo, guisante 
	pea(s)
		perumet, perunket (SD) 

arbol, palo, madera
	tree, wood
		ku-, ku:-, kuh- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas) 
		kwawi-t (C, SD) 

arbol (una clase de), cf. palo de arbol (clase que echa flores)
	tree sp. (bears flowers)
		kwilu:ni (SD) 

arco iris
	rainbow
		kusama:lu(h) (C) 
		kusama:lu-t (SD) 

arco iris (un monte, una planta del campo) 
	a wild plant sp. ("rainbow" plant) 
		wasa:ma-t (SD) 

arco y flecha 
	bow and arrow
		mi:t (C) 

arder
	to burn
		chichinaka (C) 
		tata (C, SD) "arder, quemarse" 
		chi:ltata (C, SD) "arder (del cuerpo)" 
		mimilaka (SD) "arder el fuego" 
		mimilika (C) "arder el fuego"

ardilla
	squirrel
		mutuhtsin (Teotepeque)
		mutusin (C) 
		mututsin (SD) (?)

ardor
	ardor, smarting, burning 
		chi:ltata (SD) 

arena
	sand
		a:xa:l (C) 
		xa:l- (en palabras compuestas (?))

arenoso, xara, mal molido
	sandy, poorly ground, gritty
		payaxnah (SD) 

arete
	earring
		ari:tas (C) 
		aritu (SD) 

arisco
surly, angry
		brabu(h) (SD) "arisco, bravo"
		chukaro(h) (SD) "arisco (de animal), chucaro"

armadito, cochinilla
	sowbug, potato bug
		tuhtux (SD) 

Armenia (lugar)
	Armenia (place name) 
		we:ymuhku (C) 

aroma, buen olor, olor 
	aroma, good smell, smell 
		puputuka (C) 

arrancar, arrancarse
	to uproot, to tear our, to tear off 
		ahke:wa (SD) "arrancar, despegar" 
		ahke:wi (SD) "arrancarse, despegarse" 
		kupi:na (C) "arrancar"
		ku(:)pina (SD) "arrancar"
		kupi:ni (C) "arrancarse, zafarse"
		takupi:na (C) "arrancar (algo), estar arrancando" 
		tawiwita (SD) "estar arrancando"
		wiwita (C, SD) "arrancar" (como hierba)"

arrancar la cabeza
	to tear off the head
		kechkupi:na (C) 

arranca-sebo (avispa)
	wasp sp. ("tears out tallow")
		arranka-sebu (SD) 

arrear, espantar, asustar, espantarse, asustarse 
	to drive (animals), to scare, to frighten 
		mu:tia (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.)

arreglar, componer
	to fix
		kekchiwa (C, SD) 

arreglar, empenar, hacer tapesco, amarrar con pita (mecate) 
	to arrange, to assemble, to tie together with string, to make a frame with netting 
		pi:ki (C, SD) 

arriadora, arriera (hormiga)
	driver ant
		arriadora (SD) 
		iyawtsi:ka-t (C) 

arriba
	up, above, over
		ahku (C, SD) 
		ikahku (SD) 
		kahkuwik (SD) "arriba, al norte"

arriera, arriadora (hormiga)
	driver ant
		arriadora (SD) 
		iyawtsi:ka-t (C) 

arriero
	mule-skinner
		korralero(h) (SD) 

arrimar, acercar
	to place near, next to, to bring near to
		ahxitia (C) 

arroba
	a 25-pound measure of corn, beans, rice, etc.
		almun (SD) 

arrocero (tordito)
	bird sp. (rice-eating thrush ?)
		arrosero (SD) 

arrodillarse
	to kneel
		mu-tankwaketsa (C, SD) 

arrojar, vomitar
	to vomit, to throw up
		m-isu:ta (C) m-i:suta (SD) 

arrojar, aventar, tirar
	to throw
		mu:ta (SD) 

arrollar
	to roll
		ululua (SD) 
		taululua (SD) "arrollar (algo), estar arrollando"

arrollarse (enroscarse)
	to roll, to coil
		mu-yawalua (C) 

arroz
	rice
		arros (C) 

arroz (en su planta)
	rice (on the plant) 
		i:xsaka-t (SD) 

arrugado
	wrinkled
		i:xkwehkwelechnah (C) 
		i:x(x)uhxupilnah  (C) "arrugado de la cara, hinchado de los ojos"
		ma:pilichnah (C) "arrugado de la mano"
		pilichnah (C,  SD) "arrugado (por el agua, piel de gente, mango, etc.)
		puxa:wak (C) "arrugado (por el agua), puspo"

arruinar, descomponer, desarmar
	to ruin, to take apart, to break apart/down
		ihtakua (C, SD) 

arrullar (para alguien), cantar algo para alguien
	to sing to (someone), to lull (someone)
		takwi:kalia (SD) 

asado
	roasted, fried
		ixkatuk (C) 
		taixkal (C) "asado, cosa asada"

asar
	to roast, to fry
		ixka (C, SD) 
		taixka (C, SD) "asar (algo), estar asando"

asco (darse)
	to feel nausea, to be nauseous
		el-mu-yawa (C, SD) "darse asco"

asentar, poner, llevar (ropa)
	to place, to put, to wear
		ta:lia (C, SD) 

asesino
	killer, assassin
		asesinu(h) (SD) 

asi
	thus, in this manner/way 
		kenemeh (C) "asi, como" 
		kieneh (SD) 
		kiunih (C) "asi, asi es" 
		kiya (C) 

asi es, verdad
	true, that's right, that's it
		te:hkiya (SD) 

asi no mas
	right there
		kiunihsan (C, SD) 
asolearse
	to sun, to lie/sit in the sun 
		mu-tu:naltatia (C) 
		mu-tu:nalwia (SD) 

asomarse, darse a ver (dejar verse), aparecer
	to be seen, to lean out, to stick one's head out, to appear, to cause to be seen
		ne:xtia (C) 

aspero
	rough
		xaxawaka (C) 

asta, palo
	pole
		asta (SD) 

asustar, asustarse
	to scare, to be frightened
		i:xmu:tia (SD) "asustar, espantar" 
		mu-i:xmu:tia (C, SD) "asustarse, espantarse" 
		mu:tia  (C,  SD) (t.v.,  r.v.)  "asustar(se),  espantar(se), arrear"
		te(:)muhmu:tia (C) "asustar a alguien"
		te(:)mu:tia (C) "asustar a alguien"

ataque (dar), tener un ataque cardiaco
	to have/suffer a heart attack
		yu:lmiki (SD) "dar ataque, tener un ataque cardiaco"

atarantarse, marearse
	to feel dizzy, to become faint
		i:xpuya:wi (C) 

ataud
	coffin
		-kahah-yu (SD) 
		ka:hu:n (C) 
		ka:ho:n (C) 

atencion, caso
	attention (e.g. in "to pay attention to")
		ka:soh (C) 

atizar
	to stoke, to build up the fire
		chakaltia (S)
		tsintukia (C) 
		untuwia (SD) 

atol, atole
	atole (a corn drink) 
		atu:l (C) 

atorar, trabar
	to stick, to jam, to get something stuck 
		ku:naktia (C, SD) 

atorarse, trabarse
	to get stuck
		ku:naka (C) 
		ku:naki (SD) 
atras
	behind
		tateputsnah (C) "atras, hacia atras"
		ti:pan (SD) "atras, detras"

atrasarse, quedarse
	to remain, to stay
		naka (SD) 

aullo, aullido, latido 
	howl
		ku:yu:chu:ka (C)
		ku:yuchu:ka (SD) 

aurora (?), claridad 
	dawn (?), clearness 
		tane:skan (C) 

aventar
	to throw
		kumimia (SD) "aventar, tirar, echar" 
		ku:tamima (SD) "aventar, botar" 
		mu:ta (SD) "aventar, tirar, arrojar" 
		tamu:ta (SD) "aventar (algo), tirar (algo)"

avergonzarse, tener verguenza
	to be ashamed, to be embarrassed
		i:xpi:na:wa (C) 
		i:xpina:wa (SD) 

avispa 'arranca-sebo'
	wasp sp. ("tears-out-tallow") 
		arranka-sebu (SD) 

avispa (clase de)
	wasp sp.
		etsa-t (SD) 

axila, sobaco
	armpit
		-kuxun (SD) 

ayeco (frijol de castilla), chilipuca 
	bean sp.
		a:yekuh (C) 

ayer
	yesterday
		ya:luwa (C) 
		ya(:)luwa (SD) 

ayote (calabaza)
	squash sp. (pumpkin sp.) 
		ayuh (C, SD) 

ayudar
	to help
		pale:wia (C, SD) 

ayudar a poner carga, alzar, cargar
	to help (someone) place a load, to load, to put up 
		takimiltia (C, SD) 

ayunar
	to fast
		-chiwa ayunar (SD) 

azacuan (pajaro)
	bird sp. (aquatic ?, seen only in summer) 
		atsakwani (SD) 

azadon
	large hoe
		asadon (SD) 
	
azotar
	to whip
		witeki (C, SD) "azotar, castigar, golpear, pegar, aporrear" 
		tawiteki (C) "estar azotando, castigando"
	
azucar
	sugar
		a:su:hkal (C) 
	
azucena
	white lily
		asusena (SD) 
	
azul 
	blue
		xuxuktsin (C) 
					
B
	
babea, saliva
	saliva, slobber, drivel
		-te:n-a:yu (SD) 

badajo, ombligo
	navel, belly button 
		-xi:k (SD) 

bagre (pescado)
	fish sp. (catfish ?) 
		tsunte-t (C) 
	
bailar
	to dance
		ihtutia (C, SD) 
	
bajar, apear
	to lower, to get (something) 
		down temultia (C, SD) 

bajareque, pared
	wall, wattle and dob wall 
		tapepechul (C) 
bajarse
	to get down, to descend
		ku:temu (C) 
		temu (C, SD) 
		tsapa(:)lua (C) 
		(w)altemu (C, SD) 

bajarse juntos
	to get down together, to descend together
		se:ntemu (C, SD) 

bajarse zapatoncito
	to get down (like a dwarf ?), to lower oneself 
		tsapalua (C) 

bajito
	short
		chapachin (C) 
		tsapatsin (C) 

bajo de, abajo de, debajo de
	below, under, beneath, underneath
		-tan (C) 
balde, cubeta
	bucket, pail
		balde(h) (SD) 

balsamo 
	balsam
		u:xi-t (C) 

bambu
	bamboo
		bambu(h) (SD) 
		barabaton (SD) "clase de bambu"

banco (para sentarse)
	bench
		banhuh (SD) 

banqueta 
	stool
		banketa (SD) 
		kwihkwal (SD) 

banar, banarse
	to bathe
		-a:ltia (C, SD) 

barba, bigote
	beard, moustache
		-te:ntsun (C) 

barbasco (veneno para matar pescado) 
	fish poison
		chihchi:lmeka-t (SD) 
		pahchi:lmeka-t (C) 

barbilla, menton, quijada
	chin, jaw
		-te:ntsi:ka-w (C, SD) 

barbon (arbol)
	tree sp. ("beared" tree) 
		te:ntsunyu:yuh (C) 

barbudo
	beared
		kamaxayal (C) 
barco
	boat     
		barkuh (SD) 

barranco, cueva
	ravine, cave
		ustu:-t (C, SD) 

barrer
	to sweep
		(u)chpa:na 
		(C) uchpa:na (SD) 
		tachpa:na (C) "estar barriendo, barrer (algo)"
		tuchpa:na (SD) "estar barriendo, barrer (algo)"

barriga
	belly
		ihti (C, SD) 

barrilete (papalote, cometa)
	kite
		pa:pa:lu-t (SD) 

barrio
	barrio, quarter (section of town)
		barriu (SD) 

barro (como para hacer ollas)
	clay
		suki-t (C, SD) 

barro, grano, nacido
	pimple, boil
		pusa (C, SD) 
		sa:wa-t (C, SD) 
		taxwi:s (C) 

base, nalga
	bottom, base, rump, backside, arse
		tsin (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas)

basta!
	that's enough!, that'll do!
		basta (SD) 

bastante, mucho
	much, a lot
		miyak (C, SD) 
		suhsul (SD) 

bastante, recio
	a lot, loud, strong, much, big 
		we:y (SD) 

basura, broza
	trash, garbage, rubbish 
		ku:pahsul (SD) 
		tahsul (C) 

batea
	wooden tray
		ku:xi:kal (C) 

bautismo
	baptism
		ulyuh (C) 

bautizar
	to baptize
		-chiwa bautisar (SD) 
		-maka ulyuh (C) 

bebe, tiernito, nino chiquito 
	baby, infant
		xu:lu-t (C, SD) 

beber
	to drink
		a:ti (C, SD) (i.v.) 
		uni (C, SD) (t.v.)

bejuco
	vine
		meka-t (C, SD) 

bejuco (una clase de)
	vine sp.
		prendamor

bejuco (una clase de bejuco con raices como patas de mucielago) 
	vine sp. (with roots like bats' feet)
		tsina:kan (SD) 

bejuco lagarto
	vine sp. ("alligator" vine)
		kuntan (SD) 

bejuquillo (culebra)      
	snake sp. ("vine" snake)
		i:xmekayu kak-ti (C) 
		ku:wat meka-t (SD) 

bellota, aguate
	bud, acorn (?)
		a:wa-t (SD) 

bendecir
	to bless
		-chiwa bendesir (C, SD) 

besar
	to kiss
		tate:nna:miki (C, SD) "besar (algo), estar besando" 
		te:nchichina (C) 
		te:nna:miki (C) "besar, adorar, venerar"
beso, bechito
	kiss, little kiss (children's word ?)
		chito, chitu (SD) 

bestia, caballo
	horse
		ka:bayuh (SD) 
		ka:wayu (C) 

biberon, pacha
	baby bottle 
		chichi:wal (SD) 

bigote
	moustache
		bigoteh (SD) 
		te:ntsun (C) "bigote, barba"

bija, achiote
	bixa, annotto (food-coloring condiment)
		a:chiyu-t (C) 
		a:chi:yu-t (SD) 

bizco
cock-eyed, cross-eyed
	i:xchiku (C) 
	i:xturnu (SD) 

blanco
	white
		istak (C, SD) 

blando, suave, aguado 
	bland, soft, watery 
		yama:nik (C, SD) 

blanquearse
	to turn white, to become white, to whiten
		istaya (SD) 

bledo, blero
	plant sp. (with leaves like spinach)
		leruh (SD) 

boa, masacuate, mazacuate
	boa constrictor 
		masa:ku(:)wa-t (C) 
		masa:ku:wa-t (SD) 
bobo, pescado bobo
	fish sp. ("dumb" fish)
		bobo, michin bobo (SD) 

boca
	mouth
		-te:n (C, SD) 

boda
	wedding
		bodah (SD) 

bofe (pulmon)
	lung
		puhpus (C, SD) 

bofito (liviano)
	light
		ahkatik (SD) 
		wahchultik (C) 

bola, pelota
	ball
		peluta (C) 

bolo, borracho
	drunk
		tawa:ntuk (SD) 

bordar
	to embroider
		-chiwa bordar

borde, orilla
	edge, bank, brink 
		-te:mpan (C) 

bordon
	cane, staff
		-bordon (SD) 
		-tupil (SD) "bordon, vara (de justicia)"

borracho, bolo
	drunk
		tawa:ntuk (SD) 

borrunoso, chiboludo, chiboloso, garrasposo 
	knotty, bumpy
		i:xtsuhtsukul (SD) 
		i:xtsuhtsukulnah (C) 

bosque, monte
	woods, forest, uncleared land
		kohtan (SD) 
		kuhtan, ku:htan (C) 

bostezar
	to yawn
		ahkamacha:lua (C) 
		mu-ka:machulua (SD) 
		mu-te:mpelua (SD) 

bota
	boot
		bo:ta(h) (SD) 

botar (voltear)
	to turn over
		i:xkwepa (C, SD) 

botar
	to throw out, to overturn, to throw down 
		ku:tamima (SD) "botar, aventar" tahkali (C, SD) 
		tahkalia (SD) 
		tami:ma (C) "botar, dejar caer"
		botarse, regarse, caerse (fruta)

to fall, to scatter, to sprinkle
		xi:ni (C) 
		xini (SD) 

botar palos, rozar palos, hachar palos (tumbar, cortar arboles) 
	to fell trees, to chop down trees
		tsine:wa (C, SD) 

botella 
	botella
		bigruh (SD) "botella, vidrio"
		boteyah, boteah (C) 
		boteya(h) (SD) 
boton
	button
		boton (SD) 

brasa
	live coal
		tekunal (C, SD) 

brasas regadas
	coals spread out so fire will light or burn better 
		chakanaltituk (C) 

bravo, arisco
	surly, angry
		brabu(h) (SD) 

brazo
	arm
		-mahkul (C) 
		mahkul (SD) 

brillante (?), cosa que relumbra, brilla 
	bright, shining
		tsitsinaka (C, SD) 

brillar, alumbrar
	to shine, to illuminate
		ka:wa:ni (C) 
		tata:wilua (C) 

brincar
	to jump, to leap
		tsikwi:ni (C, SD) "brincar, saltar"
		tsihtsikwi:ni (SD) "brincar, estar brincando, andar brincado"    
		tetsikwini (SD) "brincar,  cruzar en las piedras (p. ej. el rio)

brio (fuerza, energia para hacer algo)
	gumption, energy/strength to do something
		-kwahsiwis (C) 

brisa
	breeze
		a:na:wak (C) 
		brisa(h) (SD) 

brote, pichota
	bud
		piyuch (SD) 

broton, cojollo, retono 
	bud, sprout
		-mulinka (C) 

broza, basura
	trash, rubbish
		tahsul (C) 

bruja
	witch
		bruhah (C) 
		bruha(h) (SD) 

brujo
	witch, sorcerer
		bruhu(h) (SD) 
		ku:sikna (C) 
		mi:ku (C, SD) "brujo, mico, transformador" 
		na:na:watsin (SD) 

buche, tragadera
	craw, gullet, throat
		-buchi, buche (SD) 

buena gente
	nice (person), good (person) 
		ye:ktsin (C) 

buenas tardes
	good evening, good afternoon 
		bwenas tardes (SD) 

bueno
	good
		ye:k (C, SD) 

buenos dias
	good morning
		bwenas dias (SD) 

buey
	ox
		bwey (SD) 
		turuh (SD) "buey, toro, res, vaca"

bulta, carga, tercio
	bundle, load
		kimil (C) 
		kimi:tsin (C) 

burbujear
	to bubble
		-chiwa borbunyar (SD) 

burgar, ramar, bramear
	to bellow, to roar, to howl 
		-chiwa burgar (SD) 

burlar, burlarse de
	to mock, to make fun of 
		ahkawetska (SD) 

burro, burra
	burro, donkey
		burru(h), burra(h) (SD) 

burro (marco de madera para la piedra de moler (metate)) 
	wooden frame to support the quern (metate)
		burruh (SD) 

buscar
	to seek, to look for
		te:mua (C, SD) 

buscar dondequiera
	to look high and low for, to search
		mu-tate:mulia (SD) 

buscarselo (buscar algo para uno mismo)
	to scrounge up, to look for something for oneself
		mu-tate:muwilia (C) 

butaca, botadora
	armchair
		botaka (SD) 

C

cabal (exacto, completo)
	exact, just right 
		kabal (C) 

caballo, bestia 
	horse
		ka:bayuh (SD) 
		ka:wayu (C) 

caber, llegar, alcanzar, hallar, encontrar
	to fit, to arrive, to reach, to find, to meet 
		ahsi (C, SD) 

cabecearse (estar a punto de dormirse)
	to nod, to be falling asleep 
		kuchisneki (C) 
		kukuchi (SD) 
	
cabeza
	head
		ku- (C, SD) 'cabeza' (en palabras compuestas)
		kwa-, kwah-, kwa:- (C, SD) (en palabaras compuestas)
		tsun- (C, SD) 'cabeza, pelo, punta' (en palabras compuestas) 
		tsuntekuma-t (C, SD) "cabeza, calavera, 'la calavera'"
	
cabeza de piedra (loco, tonto)
	crazy, fool ("stone head") 
		tsunte-t (SD) 
	
cabezon
	big head, fat-head 
		tsuntesu:n (C) 
	
cabo 
	handle
		ka:bo(h) (SD) 
	
cabra, cabro
	goat
		ka:bra (C) 
		ka:brah, ka:bruh (SD) 

caca, excremento, estiercol 
	excrement, crap, feces 
	kwita-t (C, SD) 

cacaguatal (arboles de cacao, huerta de cacao) 
	cacao orchard, stand of cacao trees 
		kakawatal (C) 
		
cacahuate (?), tarcacaguate, tierra-cacao
	peanut (?)
		ta:lkakawa-t (C, SD) 

cacao
	cacao, cocoa
		kakawa-t (C, SD) 

cacarear (animales)
	to cackle
		mu-kakasua (SD) 

cacarico (camaroncito) 
	small shrimp sp. 
		a:muku (C) 
		mu:ku (SD) 

cacaste, cacaxte (caja de madera par cargar cosas) 
	carrying crate
		kakax (SD) 
		taku:kal (C) 

cacaste, cacaxte de animal (esqueleto) 
	dried up animal, animal skeleton 
		-kakax-yu (SD) 

cachete, mejilla
	cheek
		-kamak (C, SD) 

cachimba, pipa (para fumar)
	pipe
		kachimbu (C) 

cacho, cuerno
	horn
		-kachoh (SD) 
cada
	each
		kada (C)
cada uno
	each one
		sehse:

cadaver, muerto
	dead person, cadaver, dead body
		mikini (C) 

cadejo  (ser sobrenatural,  lobo o pastor aleman que guia o ataca a los borrachos)
	supernatural wolf or German shepherd that either leads drunks or attacks them
		kadeho(h) (SD)

cadena
	chain
		kadena (SD) 

cadera
	hip
		-pale:tah-yu (C) 
		-tsin-u:mi-yu (SD) 

caerse
	to fall
		wetsi (C, SD) 
		(w)alkuwetsi (SD) 

caerse (una fruta), regarse 
	to fall (fruit), to scatter, to sprinkle 
		xi:ni (C) 
		xini (SD) 
		(w)alxi:ni (C) 

caerse boca arriba
	to fall on one's back, to fall face up 
		ahketswetsi (C) 

cafe (color)
	brown
		ku:puknah (SD) 

cafe
	coffee
		kafe(h) (C, SD) 

cafecillo, uminexte (arbol)
	tree sp. (hard wood, good for houses)
		u:minex (C) 

Cagadero de Gallina (lugar)
	"Chicken Crapper" (place name) 
		imihkwitayan tihlan (C) 

cajete, losa
	clay dish
		kaxi-t (C, SD) 

cajon
	box
		ka:ho:n (C) 

cajuelita, petalo de flor
	flower petal
		kahwelah (SD) 

cal
	lime (of stone)
		tenex (C, SD) 

calabaza, ayote
	squash sp., pumpkin sp. 
		ayuh (C, SD) 

calaboz (clase de machete) 
	kind of machete 
		kalabo:s (SD) 

calabozo, carcel
	jail
		alkalabu:s (C) 
	
calado (estar) (estar recocido el maiz)
	to be soaked through (for corn soaked in ash to be ready)
		nexkalaki (C) "estar calado"

calambre
	cramp
		kalambre(h) (SD) 

calambre (tener), culebrear, curcuvear
	to have a cramp, to wind, to curve
		mu-kwehkwetua (SD) "tener calambre, culebrear, curcuvear"

calavera, cabeza; "la calavera (espanto)"
	skull, head; "the skull" (supernatural being)
		tsuntekuma-t (C, SD) "la calavera" (espanto) "the skull" (supernatural being)
		tsunkechehchel (C) 
		tsuntekuma-t (C, SD) 

calcetin
	sock(s)
		kalsetin

caldo
	soap, stew
		iya:yu (C) 
		kalduh (SD) 

calentarse
	to get warm, to heat up 
		tutu:niya (SD) 

calentura, fiebre
	fever
		tutu:nka:yu-t (C) 

caliente
	hot
		tata (C) 
		tutu:nik (C, SD) "caliente, hace calor"

calsonte (palo en la construccion de casas) 
	beam (?)
		kaltsunti (C, SD) 

calvo
	bald
		kwa:xi:petsnah (C) "calvo, frente calvo" 
		tsumpe:suh (SD) "calvo"
		tsuntsennah (C) "calvo (ralo de pelo)" 
		tsunxi:pe (SD) "calvo, pelon" 
		tsunxi:pets (C) "calvo, pelon"

calzon
	pants, trousers
		-sala (C, SD)

callado (taciturno)
	quiet, one who talks little, taciturn person 
		te:nnux (kwit) (C) 
		te:n-tatsiwi (C) 

callarse
	to be quiet, to shut up 
		ta:kaktua (C, SD) 

calle
	street
		kayeh (C, SD) 

camagua (elote, palo, etc. no seco) 
	not yet dried out
		kama:wak (C) 
		ka:mawak (SD) 

camalote (un zacaton grueso) 
	grass sp.
		kamalu-t (C) 

camanance, hoyuelo
	dimples
		kamanantsin (C, SD) 

camaron
	shrimp
		chakalin (C, SD) 

camaron hembra 
	female shrimp
		yehka (SD) 

camaroncillo 
	small shrimp (sp.) 
		a:cha:kal (C) 
camaroncito cascarudo del rio, cacarico 
	river shrimp sp.
		a:muku (C) 
		mu:ku (SD) 

cambiar, cambiarse
	to change, to exchange
		pata (C) "cambiar (dinero, ropa)"
		tapatilia (C, SD) "cambiar, intercambiar, cambiarselo" 
		mu-tapatia (C) "cambiarse, vestirse"

cambio, vuelto
	change (money)
		bwelto(h), welto(h) (SD) 

cambio, repuesto (refaccion)
	change, exchange, (spare) part
		-patka (C, SD) 

cameconejo (zacate de conejo (?)) (zacatillo, un zacate fino) 
	grass sp.
		kamikoneho(h) (SD) 
		sakana:wal (SD) 

caminar, andar
	to walk
		nehnemi (C, SD) 

caminar a tientas (sin ver)
	to walk by feeling one's way (without seeing)
		mahma:tu:ka (C) 
		tamahma:tu:ka (C) 

camino 
	road, path, way
		uh-ti (C, SD) 

camino del pelo, raya del cabello 
	part (in hair)
		-kwa:-uhpan (C) 

camioneta (camion de pasaje)
	bus
		kamioneta(h) (SD) 

camisa
	shirt
		-koton (Ataco)

camote
	sweet potato
		chi:ltik kamuh (C, SD) 

campana
	bell
		kampanah (SD) 
campanilla (una clase de campanilla, bejuco) 
	vine sp.
		tuna:ntsin tuhtul (C) 

campo (tierra abierta)
	country, open ground
		tawe:ykan (C) 

camposanto, cementerio 
	cemetery, graveyard 
		panti(y)on (SD) 

cana 
	cane
		ka:nah (SD) 
		tsun-istak (C) 

canasta
	basket
		chikiwi-t (C, SD) 

candela
	candle
		kande:lah (C) 

cangrejo
	crab
		tekwisis (C, SD) 

canicula
	pause in the rains of rainy season (dog days)
		kanikluh (SD) 
		tu:nalku (C, SD) "canicula, verano"

canilla, pierna
	leg, shank
		-ku:ts (C) 

canoa, lancha
	canoe, small boat
		kanuwah (SD) 

canoa (para dar comida a animales)
	trough
		pi:la(h) (SD) 

cansarse
	to tire, to get tired
		kuhku:tiya (C) "cansarse, rendirse"
		ku:ti:ya  (SD) "cansarse (de estar en un lugar (sentado, parado, acostado))"
		suta:wa (C, SD) "cansarse"
		mu-tsinku:ti:ya (C) "cansarse de estar sentado"

cantador, cantante
	singer
		takwi:kani (C, SD) 

cantar
	to sing
		takwi:ka (C, SD) 

cantar algo para alguien
	to sing something for someone
			takwi:kalwia (C) 
			takw:kalia (SD) 

cantaro, tinaja
	water jug, pitcher
		tsutsukul (C, SD) 

cantil (culebra)
	snake sp.
		kantil (SD) 

canton
	canton, hamlet
		kanton (SD) 

canuto, gajo, tajada 
	section of cane, section of fruit 
		nekpach (C, SD) 

cana
	cane
		kanyax (Nahuizalco)
		u:wa-t (C, SD) 

cana blanca
	cane sp. ("white cane") 
		ista(:)ku:wa-t (C) 

cana colorada
	cane sp. ("red cane") 
		chi:ltiku:wa-t (C) 

caoba
	mahogany
		tsuntsaput-tiyuhkwawi-t (C) 

caolote (arbol)
	tree sp.
		ku:chiyan (C) 
		kwawulu-t (SD) 

capar, castrar
	to castrate
		-chiwa kapar (SD) 

capilla
	chapel
		kapiya(h) (SD) 

capitana de la cofradia
	captainess of the confraternity 
		dipotada, diputada (SD) 
		kalpu:l (SD) 

capulamate (arbol)
	"capulamate" tree
		kapula:ma-t (SD) 

capulin
	bird cherry, choke cherry (tree and fruit)
		kapulin (C, SD) 

cara
	face
		i:x- (C, SD) 'cara', "ojo" (en palabras compuestas) 
		-i:xkaliyu (C) 
		ka:ra-t (SD) 

cara larga
	long face(d)
		i:xkuweyak (SD) 
		i:xweyak (C) "cara larga, caron"

cara tiesa
	stiff face(d)
		i:xtetsi:lnah (C) (adj.)

caracol
	snail
		karakol (SD) 

caracol de agua, jute
	snail (water snail)
		xuti (C, SD) 

caracol (una clase de jute) 
	snail sp.
		i:xpe:l (SD) 
		i:xpe:lxuti (SD) 
		
caracolito (una clase de caracolito) 
	small snail sp.
		kalne:wi (C) 
		xutira:yuh (SD) 

caracolito del mar, conchita
	small sea snail, small shell
		a:xi:lin (SD) 
		si:lin (C) "caracolito de mar"

carbon, tizne, tile
	soot
		ku:nti:l (C) 

carcajear, carcajearse
	to cackle
		ahahwetska (C) 

carcanal, talon
	heel
		itsinteyu (ikxi) (C) 
		i-tsunteyu -(i)kxi (SD) 
		-tsinteyu (C) 
		i-tsinteyu ikxi (C) 

carcel
	jail
		alkalabu:s (C) "carcel, calabozo" 
		re(:)ha(h) (SD) 

carga, bulta, tercio
	load, bundle
		kimil (C) 
		kimi:tsin (C) 

carga (de lena)
	load (of firewood) 
		ka:rgah (C, SD) 

cargadores (de Semana Santa) 
	bearers (in Holy Week) 
		kargadores (SD) 

cargar, alzar, ayudar a poner carga 
	to load, to help someone place a load, to put up 
		takimiltia (C, SD) 

cargo (oficio)
	office, charge
		ka:rgoh (C) 

carne
	meat
		naka-t (C, SD) 

caro
	expensive
		ka:roh (C) 

caron, cara larga
	long face, big face
		i:xweyak (C) 

carreta
	cart
		karretah (SD) 
		
carrizal (?)
	canebreak, stand of reeds 
		a:katal (C) 

carrizo, vara
	cane, reed
		a:ka-t (C, SD) 

carpintero
	carpenter
		kalpinteroh (C) 

casa
	house
		kal (C, SD) 
		-chan (C, SD) "casa, hogar"

casampulga (arana venenosa)
	spider sp. (said to be poisonous)
		chi:ltuka-t (C) 

casar, casarse
	to marry
		na:miktia (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.)

cascabel (culebra)
	rattlesnake
		kwechwah (C, SD) 

cascara, pellejo, piel
	skin, hide, leather, shell, peel
		-e:wayu (C) 
		-ewayu (SD) 

cascaron de huevo, cascaron de coco, julon, jicara, morro 
	shell (eggshell, coconut shell, gourd)
		xu:lun (SD) 

caserio
	hamlet, small village 
		kahkal (C, SD) 

casi
	almost
		kasi (SD) 

caso, atencion
	attention (e.g to pay attention) 
		ka:soh (C) 

caspa
	dandruff
		gaspa(h) (SD) 

castellano, castilla, espanol 
	Spanish
		kastiyah (C, SD) 

castigar
	to punish
		maka (C, SD) "castigar, dar" 
		-chiwa kastigar (SD) 
		tamaka (SD) "castigar, dar"
		tawiteki (C) "castigar, azotar" 
		witeki (C, SD) "castigar, azotar, pegar, aporrear"

castilla, castellano, espanol
	Spanish
		kastiyah (C, SD) 

castrar, capar
	to castrate
		-chiwa kapar (SD) 

catarro, tos
	cough, influenza
		tatasi (C) 
		tatasis, tatasi (SD) 

catequista
	catechism teacher, catechist
		dotrinera (SD) 

catolico
	Catholic
		katoliko(h) (SD) 

caza (lo cazado, lo que se caza) 
	game (that which is hunted) 
		tape:wil (C, SD) 

cazar
	to hunt
		pe:wia (C) 

cebolla
	onion
		seboya(h) (SD) 

cedro
	cedar
		se(:)gru(h) (SD) 
		tiyuhkwawi-t (C) 

ceiba
	silk-cotton tree
		pu:chu-t (C, SD) 

ceja
	eyebrow
		i:xkalyu (SD) 
		-i:xtsuhtsun-yu (C, SD) "cejas, pestanas"
		-i:xtun-yu (SD) (forma singular no muy comun) "ceja, pestana"
		-tsuhtsun-yu (SD) "cejas, pestanas"

celebrar
	to celebrate
		ilwiki:sa (SD) 

cementerio, camposanto
	cemetery, graveyard
		panti(y)on (SD) 

cena
	dinner
		se:na(h) (SD) 

ceniza
	ash
		nex-ti (C, SD) 

centavito, cinco
	cent, five
		ma:kwil (SD) 

centella, rayo
	lightning
		senteyah (SD) 

cenidor, maxtate, mastate
	breechclout, loincloth 
		maxta-t (C, SD) 
		-gi:nchuh (SD) 
		sinidor (C, SD) 

cenirse
	to gird oneself, to wear a loincloth 
		mu-chiwa sinyir (SD) 
cepillo
	brush
		sepiyu(h) (SD) 

cera
	wax
		sah-ti (C) 
		serah (SD) 

cerca
	near, close
		achka

cerca de
	near
		-na:wak (C, SD) "cerca de, junto con"
		-tech (C, SD) "cerca de, junto a, pegado con, contra"

cerco, corral, chiquero
	fense, corral, pigpen
		ku:lal (SD) 

cerco, circulo
	fense, circle
		yawaltsaktuk (C) 

cerezo (?), palo de cereza de la montana 
	wild cherry tree (?)
		ta:ltumakwawi-t (C) 

cerillo, fosforo
	match
		ho:sporoh (C) 

cernada, nejayote, nijayote (agua de nixtamal)
	nixtamal water, water  in which corn is washed which has the dirty remains
		nexa:yu-t (C, SD) 

cerrar, cerrarse
	to close
		tsakwa (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.)
cerro
	mountan
		tepe:-t (C, SD) 

Cerro de Cuisnahuat (lugar)
	Cuisnahuat mountain 
		kwisna:wahtepe:t (C) 

Cerro del Toro (lugar)
	"Bull Mountain" (place name) 
		tepe:toroh (C) 

cerveza
	beer
		serbesa(h) (SD) 

cicahuite, quebracho (arbol)
	 tree sp. (quebracho tree) 
		tsihkwawi-t (C)

cicatriz
	scar
		kipi (C) 
		pelech (SD) 

cicatrizarse, secarse
	to dry up, for a scar to form
		i:xwaki (SD) 

ciego
	blind
		i:xchukulu (C) "ciego, choco" 
		i:xpupuyu-t (C) "ciego, choco" 
		pupu:yu-t (SD) "ciego"
		tesu tachiya (C, SD) "ciego"

cielo
	sky, heaven
		ka-ikahku (SD) 
		si(y)elu(h) (SD) 

ciguapate (arbusto medicinal) 
	ciguapate bush (medicinal bush) 
		siwa:pah (C, SD) 

cilantro, culantro
	coriander
		kulantroh (SD) 

cinco
	five
		ma:kwil (C) 
		ma:kwil (SD) (arcaico) 
		puwal (C) "cinco"
		se:mpuwal (C) 

cinco mazorcas
	five ears of corn 
		puwal (SD) 

cincho, faja
	sash, belt
		pa:xah (C, SD) 

cintura, gruesura
	waist
		-cha:mahka (SD) 

circular, redondo 
	circular, round 
		yawalnah (C) 

circulo, cerco
	circle, fense 
		yawaltsaktuk (C) 

cirial(es)
	processional candle-holders of the church 
		siriyales (SD) 

ciudad
	city
		siwdad (SD) 

clara de huevo
	egg yolk
		ista:ka (C) 
		istaka:yu (SD) 

claridad (aurora (?)) 
	clearness, dawn (?) 
		tane:skan (C) 
claro
	clear
		chipa:wak (C, SD) 
		chipaknah (SD) "claro, algo claro" 
		tachipahtuk (C) "claro, algo claro"

clavo
	nail
		klabu(h) (SD) 
		kla:wus (C) 

clisclis, lijlicse (gavilancillo) 
	small hawk
		lihliktsin (C) 

coa, chuzo (palo para sembrar) 
	planting stick
		maka:nuh

Coatepeque (lugar)
	Coatepeque (place name) 
		ku(:)watepe:-t (C) 

cobija  
	blanket     
		-kwe:n-yu (SD) "cobija, chiva" 
		take:n (C) "cobija, sabana"

cobijar, encobijar, acobijar
	to cover with a blanket
		take:ntia (C) 

cocer, cocinar
	to cook
		mana (C, SD) 
		tamana (C, SD) "cocer (algo), estar cocinando"

cocer maiz, cocer nixtamal
	to cook nixtamal (prepared corn)
		nexketsa (C, SD) 

cocido
	cooked
		tamanti (C, SD) 

cocido (estar), madurarse
	to be cooked, to ripen
		uksi (C, SD) "estar cocido, madurarse"

cocido, madura
	cooked, ripe
		uksik (C, SD) 

cocinar, cocer
	to cook
		mana (C, SD) 
		tamana (C, SD) "estar cocinando, cocer (algo)"

coco
	coconut
		ku:ku(h) (C) 
		koko(h) (SD) 

"el coco", mal espiritu, espanto 
	boogyman (spook)
		-kuhkul (C, SD) 

cochinilla, amradito, cochinito 
	sowbug, potato bug
		tuhtux (SD) 

cochino (persona sucia) 
	dirty person
		chuntal (SD) 

codo
		-kodoh-yu (SD) 
		-ma:mis-yu (C) 

codorniz, godorniza 
	quail
		su:lin (C) 
		welchah (SD) 

cofradia
	confaternity (religious organization)
		kofradia (SD) 
		mayordomi(y)a(h) (SD) 

cofre
	trunk, chest, coffer 
		kohre(h) (SD) 
	
cogollo
	shoot, sprout, bud
		-tsun (SD) "cogollo (de arbol)
		-mulinka (C) "cogollo, cojollo, retono, broton"
cohete
	rocket
		kwetes (C) 

cojin, almohada
	cushion, pillow
		kwahtetun (C, SD)

cojo, renco de un pie, patojo de un pie
	lame
		metskalapa (C) 

cojon (arbol)
	tree sp.
		iteksis-kuyame-t (C, SD) 

cola 
	tail
		-kolah-yu (SD) 
		-kwitapil (C) 

colar
	to strain (liquids) 
		kwa:chki:xtia (C) 

colchon
	mattress     
		kolchon (SD) 
		-pechih (C) 
		pehpech (SD) 

comadre
	co-godmother
		ku:ma:leh (C) 

comadreja
	weasel
		kusama:liyuh (C) 

comal
	griddle (clay tortilla griddle)
		kuma:l (C) 
		kumal (SD) 

comejen
	termite
		ta:lxina:ch (SD) 
		ta:lxinech (C) 

comenzar
	to begin, to start 
		pe:wa (C, SD) 
		tsintia (C) "comenzar, empezar" 
		tsihtsintia (C, SD) "comenzarlos" (pl.)

comer
	to eat
		kwa (C, SD) 
		takwa (C, SD) "comer (algo), estar comiendo"

comer juntos
	to eat together
		se:ntakwa (C, SD) 

comerciante, vendedor
	vender, seller
		tanamakani (C) 

cometa (estrella fugaz)
	shooting star
		kometa(h) (SD) 

comida
	food
		takwal (C, SD) 

como
		kenemeh (C) "como, asi" 
		komo (SD) "como"

compadre
	co-godfather
		ku:mpa:leh (C) 

companero
	companion, buddy
		a:mi:guh (C, SD) "companero, amigo" 
		-kumpa (SD) "companero, companera"

componer, componerse
	to fix, to get better
		kekchiwa (C, SD) "componer" 
		takekchiwa (SD) "componer (algo)" 
		ye:ktiya (C) "componerse"

componerse la ropa
	for the clothes to come out good
		mu-yehye:kchiwa (C) 

comprar
	to buy
		kuwa (C, SD) 
		takuwa (C, SD) "comprar (algo), estar comprando"

comprar algo para alguien
	to buy something for someone
		kuwilia (C) 

comulgar
	to take communion
		mu-chiwa konfesar (SD) 

con
	with
		-wan (C, SD) 

conacaste, cuanacaste, guanacaste (arbol)
	tree sp.
		ku:nakas (C, SD) 

concunada, concuna
	co-sister-in-law (term for women married to brothers) 
		-wes (C) 

concha
	shell
		konchah (SD) 
		tapach (C) 

concha de mar
	sea shell
	tu:ntu:n (C, SD) 

concha de mar, conchita
	sea shell, small shell
		patach (C) 

conchita, caracolito de mar 
	small shell, small sea snail 
		a:xi:lin (SD) 

condor (clase de zopilote) 
	vulture sp.
		tekusma (C) 
conejo 
	rabbit
		konehoh (SD) 
		tuch-ti (C) 
		tuchtsin (SD) 

confuso, esparcido, no parejo, nudoso 
	uneven, irregular, knotty 
		tahta:kalnah (SD) 

conga (pescado)
	fish sp.
		kongah (SD) 

conocer
	to know, to be familiar with, to recognize 
		i:xmati (C, SD) 

consejo
	counsel, advice
		konse:hoh (C) 

contar
	to count
		puwa (C, SD)  (contar numeros)

contento
	happy, content
		kontentu(h) (SD) 

contento (estar)
	to be happy, content
		i:xpahpa:ki (C) "estar contento"

contra, junta a, cerca de
	against, next to, near
		-tech (C, SD) 

contradecir (hablar mal de otro)
	to speak ill of someone, to speak against, to criticize
		tehte:ne:wa (SD) 
		te:ne:wa (C) 

convento
	convent
		kombento(h) (SD) 

copal 
	copal incense
		kupal (C, SD) 

copalchillo (arbol)
	tree sp. (small copal tree sp. ?)
		kupalchi:tuh (C) 

copalillo 
	tree sp. (small copal tree sp. ?)
		kupalchin (SD) 

copete (de pajaro)
	crest (of bird)
		-tsumbune:te (C) 

copinal (arbol)
	tree sp.
		ku:pinul (C, SD) 

copular(se con)
	to copulate (with) 
		tsinketsa (SD) 

corazon
	heart
		-yu(:)l (C) 
		-yu(:)lu (SD) 
		yu(:)l- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas)

cordoncillo (arbusto o vara)
	plant sp.(a bush or cane with sections like bamboo, with many small branches like 	strings)
		chi:lta (C) 

corral, cerco, chiquero
	corral, fense, pigpen
		ku:lal (SD) 

correa
	leather strap
		i:xmekayu (C) 
		korrea (SD) 

correr
	to run
		mu-talua (C, SD) 
		talultia (C) (t.v.)

correr agua
	for water to flow
		temu a:t (C) 

cortar
	to cut
		-chiwa pedasiar (SD) "cortar en pedazos, descuartizar" 
		kuhkutu:na (C, SD) "cortar en pedazos"
		kutu:na (C, SD) "cortar (con cuchillo, machete)
		teki (C, SD) "cortar, cortar fruta"
		tateki (C, SD) "cortar (fruta), estar cortando (fruta)"

cortar algo con asiento, trozar bajo en el tronco
	to cut the bottom or base of something
		tsinkutu:na (C, SD) 

cortar el pelo, rasurar
	to cut one's hair, to shave
		xi:ma (C) 

cortar la cabeza, desnucar
	to cut off the head, to decapitate
		kechkutu:na (C, SD) 

cortar manos, ramas
	to cut off hands, branches 
		mahma:kutu:na (C, SD) 

cortar ramas 
	to cut branches
		mahmahtsalkutu:na (C) 
		mahma:kutu:na (C, SD) 

corto
	short
		kutu (C, SD) 
		kututsin (C) 

corto de la pierna 
	one-legged
		ikxikutu (C, SD) 

cosecha
	harvest
		-ta:kil (SD)
		-ta:kil (C) "cosecha de una fruta, fruta"

coser, costurar
	to sew
		(i)htsuma (C) 
		tsuma (SD) 
		tahtsuma (C) "estar costurando"

cosquillas (hacer)
	to tickle
		chihchikilua (C, SD) "hacer cosquillas"

costa, la costa
	coast, the coast
		ka-ga:ri:tah (SD) 

costal 
	gunnysack
		kuxta:l (C) 
		kuxta:l, ku:xtal (SD) 

costilla
	rib
		-u:miskwil (C) 
costra
	scab
		kostron (SD) 

costumbre
	custom, habit
		kustumbre(h) (SD) 

costurar
	to sew
		-chiwa kosturar (SD) 
		(i)htsuma (C) "costurar, coser" 
		tsuma (SD) "costurar, coser" 
		tahtsuma (C) "estar costurando"

cotusa, coatusa, cuatusa, guatusa 
	agouti, paca (?)
		kutu:x (C, SD) 

coyol (palmera)
	palm sp. ("coyol" palm)
		kuyul (C, SD) 

coyote
	coyote
		kuyu:-t (C, SD) 

crecer 
	to grow
		mu-chiwa (C) 
		mu-tiskalia (SD) 
		mu-weyaltia (SD) 

creciente del rio
	high water, swell of river 
		tepe:ya:-t (SD) 
		tuma:ka-t (C) 

creer
	to believe
		-alna:miki (SD) 
		-chiwa krer (SD) 

crespa, chorcha
	crest, comb
		-kere:spa (C) 

crespo
	curly
		muruxu (SD) "crespo, rizo, colocho" 
		tsunkulu:chuh (C) "crespo, muruxo, colocho"

cresta
	crest, comb
		chorcha(h) (SD) 

creyente
	believer
		kreyente(h) (SD) 
		luteranah (C) 

criada, criado, servienta, serviente
	maid, servant
		kri(y)adah (SD) "criada, servienta" 
		kri(y)aduh (SD) "criado, serviente"

creanza
	up-bringing
		krianksa (SD) 

criar
	to raise, to bring up
		iskalia (C, SD) 
		taiskalia (C) "criar (algo), estar criando" 
		tiskalia (SD) "criar (algo), estar criando"

criatura, nino, tiernito (bebe)
	baby, infant
		kune:-t (C, SD) 

criticar, maldecir (hablar mal de otro)
	to criticize, to speak ill of, to speak against
		tehte:ne:wa (SD) 
		te:ne:wa (C) 

crucificar
	to crucify
		-chiwa krusifikar (SD) 

crudo, verde
	raw, green
		xuxuwik (C, SD) 

cruz, la santa cruz
	cross, the Holy Cross 
		santa-krus (SD) 

cruz del senor (constelacion) 
	a constellation ("Cross-of-the-Lord") 
		krus-el-senyor (SD) 

cuajarse
	to congeal, to coagulate
		mu-chiwa sentar (SD) 

cuajmol, guajmol, quiamol (raiz que se usa para banarse) 
	a root sp. (used for bathing)
		kiyahmul (C) 
		kiyahmu:l (SD) 

cual?
	which, which one?
		ka-diya we:l (C) 

cuanacaste, conacaste, guanacaste (arbol)
	tree sp.
		ku:nakas (C, SD) 

cuando ('aun, todavia, ahora, ademas, por, por ahora') 
	when, still, now, even, furthermore, for now
		uk (C, SD) 

cuando?, cuando
	when
		ke:man (C, SD) 

cuanto?, cuantos?
	how much, how many? 
		ke:ski (C, SD) 

cuanto vale?
	how much does it cost? 
		anka ke:ski (SD) ka ke:ski (SD) 

cuatro
	four
		na:wi (C, SD) 

cuatrojo (pescado)
	fish sp. ("four-eyed" fish) 
		kwatroho(h) (SD) 

cuatusa, coatusa, cotusa, guatusa 
	agouti, paca (?)
		kutu:x (C, SD) 

cubeta, balde
	bucket, pail
		balde(h) (SD) 

cucaracha
	cockroach
		ku:kah (C) 
		ku:ka(h) (SD) 
		ku:kara:chah (C) 

cucaracha del rio (insecto)
	insect sp. ("river cockroach"; water skeeter ?)
		ita(:)kayu a:t (SD) 

cuchara de madera, paleta, pala
	large wooden spoon
		palah (SD) 

cuchara meneadora
	spoon, stirrer
		menyadora(h) (SD) 

cuello, pescuezo
	neck
		kech- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas) 
		-kechku:yu (C, SD) 

cuello (tener), tener palancas, tener influencias 
	to have pull, to have influential connections 
		-piya garantiyah (C) "tener cuello,  tener  palancas,  tener influencias"

cuelludo, uno que tiene cuello (palancas, influencias)
	someone who has pull, influential connections
		kweyudu(h) (SD) 

cuenta (de collar)
	bead
		ku:s-ti (C) 

cuento
	story
		ka:soh (SD) 
		ka:suh (C) 

cuerda
	rope, cord; a measure of land
		kwerda(h) (SD) 

cuerno, cacho
	horn
		-kachoh (SD) 
cuero
	leather
		kwetax-ti (C, SD) 
		-ewayu (SD) "cuero, piel, cascara"

cuerpo
	body
		-we:yka (SD) "cuerpo, vulva"
		-kwerpoh (C) 

cuerudo, talaje (insecto que chupa sangre) 
	a blood-sucking insect
		ta:ltexkan (C) 

cuesta arriba, empinado 
	up hill, sloping 
		i:xihkatuk (C) 

cueva, barranco
	cave, ravine
		ustu:-t (C, SD) 

cuexte (muy molido, molido muy fino)
	finely ground, ground very fine
		kwechtik (C) 

cuidado
	care
		kwidado (C) 

Cuisnahuat (lugar)
	Cuisnahuat (place name) 
		kwisna:wa-t (C) 

cuchillo
	knife
		ku:chi:yuh (C, SD) 

cuchu, pando
	bent, curved
		kwe(:)lnah (SD) 

cujin (arbol)
	tree sp.
		ku:xine (C) "cujin, paterno" 
		pepetu(h) (SD) 

culantro (cilantro)
	coriander
		kulantroh (SD) 

culebra
	snake
		ku:wa-t (C, SD) 

culebra de dos cabezas, tepulcua, tepolcua 
	snake sp. ("two-headed snake") 
		tepu:lku:wa-t (C, SD) 

culebrear, pandearse
	to bend, to wind, to wriggle 
		mu-kwehkwe:lua (C) 
		mu-kwehkwetua (SD) 

culeca (gallina clueca) 
	brooding hen
		tuhtuka (C) 

culo, ano
	arse, ass, anus
		tsupi (C) 
		tsupi (SD) (obsceno)

culpa
	fault
		kulpah (C, SD) 

culto
	meeting
		kultuh (SD) 

cuma (machete pando)
	kind of machete (bent in form) 
		kumah (C, SD) 

cumplianos
	birthday
		kumplianyos (SD) 

cuna 
	cradle
		-ka:mahtsin (C)
		ku:nah (SD) 

cuna, piedra (terron (?)) 
	wedge, stone (clod) 
		tetun-ti (SD) 

cunada de hombre
	man's sister-in-law
		kunyada(h) (SD) 

cunada de mujer
	woman's sister-in-law
		-wes (SD) 

cunado
	brother-in-law
		-tex (C) 
		-wehpu:l (C)  (-wehpul (?))

cunado de hombre
	man's brother-in-law
		kunyadu(h) (SD) 

cunado de mujer
	woman's brother-in-law
		-ehpul (SD) 

cura, padre, sacerdote
	priest
		pa:leh (C, SD) 

curandero
	curer, healer
		tapahtiya, tapahtiyani (C) "curandero, medico, doctor, enfermero"
		wardian (SD) "curandero, guardian"

curar, curarse
	to cure, to heal
		pahti (SD) "curarse, sanarse"
		pahtia (C) (t.v., r.v.)
		mu-pahtia (C) "curarse, sanarse"

curcuvear, culebrear, tener calambre
	to curve, to wind, to have a cramp
		mu-kwehkwetua (SD) 

cursear, tener diarrea
	to have diarrhea
		a:ki:xtia (C) 
		a:pitsa (C, SD) 

curso, diarrea      
	diarrhea
		a:pitsal (SD) 

curvo (encurvado) (adj.)
	curved, bent
		tepu:nnah (C) 

cusuco, armadillo
	armadillo
		na:pich (C) 

cutecuma, tecumasucho, tecomasuchil (arbol) 
	tree sp.
		ku:tekuma (SD) 
		tekumaxu:chi-t (C) 

cuto de la mano, manco
	one-handed (with one hand cut off) 
		ma:kutu (C, SD) 

cuto de la pierna, corto de la pierna 
	one-legged (with one leg, with one short leg) 
		ikxikutu (C, SD) 

cuxta (arbol)
	tree sp.
		kuxta (C) 

cuxuxa (bebida, de chicha) 
	liquor, strong drink 
		kuxu:xah (C, SD) 
	
cuyanigua
	plant sp.
		kuyan-iswa-t (C)

CH
	
chacuate
	grasshopper sp.
		chakwate (C) "chacuate, saltamonte, chapulin" 
		tekpuyu:tsin (C) "chacuate (un saltamonte sin alas)" 
		tsine:wilin (SD) "chacuate (clase de saltamonte)"
	
chacha (pajaro)
	bird sp. 
		chacha (C) 
	
chacho, guate (fruta endosado)
	doubled, twin (joined fruit)
		chachawa-t (C) 
	
chaguite, chahuite, charco
	puddle
		chawite, chawiti (SD) 
		charkuh (SD) 
		te:la:pu:ni (C) "chaguite, charco, pantano"

chaite, saite (mata de pitajaya [pitahaya])
	cactus sp.
		xuwahla:ka-t (C) 
	
champinol (pinol con dulce)
	sweet pinole (powdered sweet)
		champinu:l (C) 
	
chan, chia
	very small seed used for a drink (amaranth ?) 
		chan (C) 
chamuscar, quemar
	to singe, to burn
		chichinua (C, SD) 
	
chancaca (dulce de maiz)
	a sweet powder from "joco" corn eaten with sugar and cinnamon 
		chankwita-t (SD) 
	
chapa, cera (un jugo)
	wax, a game played with wax
		cha:pah (C) 

chapear camino (rozar, limpiar camino con machete) 
	to clear/clean the road with a machete
		uhpetawa (C) 

chaperno (arbol)
	tree sp.
		u:pahkwawi-t (C) 

chapultapa, chapulejtapa (arbol) 
	tree sp.
		chapulehtapal (C) 

chapulin
	grasshopper
		chakwate (C) 
		chapulin (C, SD) 

chaqueta, chumpa, abrigo 
	jacket, coat
		chumpah (SD) 

charco, chaguite, chahuite 
	puddle
		chawite, chawiti (SD) 
		charkuh (SD) 
		ta:la:pu:ni (C) "charco, chaguite, pantano"

chato
	pug-nosed, snub-nosed, stub-nosed
		yakakutu (SD) 
		yakapatax (C, SD) 

chayo (planta)
	plant sp., a chayote-like plant
		cha:yuh (SD) 

cheje (pajaro)
	bird sp. (like a woodpecker)
		che:cheke (C) 
		chehe (SD) 

chele, pelirrojo, canche (guero)
	blond, redhead
		tsunxi:lu-t (SD) 

cheles, leganas
	sleepy seeds (mucus in eyes formed during sleep)
		i:xchihche:le (C) 

chia, chan  
	a very small seed used to make a drink (amaranth ?) 
		chan (C) 

chibola (chipote)
	bump, lump, knot
		i:xchibolahyu (SD) "chibola, chipuste"
		tsukul (C) 

chiboloso, garrasposo, borrunoso, chiboludo
	bumpy, lumpy, knotty
		i:xtsuhtsukul (SD)
		i:xtsuhtsukulnah (C) 

chicle
	chicle, gum
		chikle (SD) 

chicozapote
	chicozapote, sapodilla 
		chikutsapu-t (C) 

chicha
	chicha, a fermented drink 
		samuka(h) (SD) 

chicharo, alberja, arbeja, guisante 
	pea(s)
		perumet, perunket (SD) 
		
chicharrita pequena (insecto)
	a small cicada sp.
		tsi:-t (C) 

chichi, seno, teta 
	breast, teat 
		-chi:chih (C) 
		-chichi:wal (SD) 

chichicaste (ortiga) 
	stinging nettle 
		tsitsi:kas (C, SD) 

chichiguas (planta)
	plant sp.
		chichiwah (SD) 

chichiguite, chichihuite, chichiguitera 
	bird sp.
		chi:wixtsin (C) 

chichipince, tomatillo (arbusto) 
	chichipince bush
		chihchipi:ntsin (SD) 
		xihxipi:ntsin (C) 

chichuisa, piojo blanco
	louse sp., white louse
		istakatime-t (C) 

chiflar, silvar
	to whistle
		-chiwa chihlar (SD) 
		ma:kiki:sa (C, SD) 
		ma:kiki:si (SD) 

chiguirin (chicharrita)
	a small cicada sp. 
		kutu-turrun (C) 

chijin (mosca chiquitilla) 
	gnat sp.
		xa:lmu:yu:-t (C) 

chijmuyo, chismuyo, chijuyo (pajaro) 
	bird sp.
		tsikmu:yu (C) 
		tsikmuyu (SD) 

chijualera, chigualero (olla para agua para hacer tortillas) 
	bowl of water for making tortillas
		a:chiwalti

chijuyo, chimuyo, chismuyo (pajaro)
	bird sp.
		tsikmu:yu (C) 
		tsikmuyu (SD) 

chilamate
	tree sp. (relative of amate)
		chila:ma-t (C) 

chilasate (avispa)
	wasp sp. 
		chi:letsa-t (C) 

chilate (bebida de maiz tostado) 
	toasted-corn drink
		chi:la-t (C, SD) 

childulce, chile verde, chile de arroz 
	green chili, green chili pepper 
		chi:ltsupe:lek (SD) 

chile
	chili, chili pepper
		chi:l (C, SD) 

chile de arroz, childulce, chile verde 
	green chili, green chili pepper 
		chi:ltsupe:lek (SD) 

chile piriguela (chile ciruela), chilaguaco, chilguaque 
	chili sp., chili pepper sp.
		chi:lwaku, chilwako (SD) 

chile verde, childulce, chile de arroz
	green chili sp., green chili pepper sp. 
		chi:ltsupe:lek (SD) 

chilguaco, chilguaque, chile piriguela (chile ciruela) 
	chili sp., chili pepper sp.
		chi(:)lwaku, chilwako (SD) 
chilepulga, chiltepe, chilpepe, chiltepi 
	chili sp., chili pepper sp. 
		chi:ltekpin (C, SD) 

chilipuca, ayeco (frijol de castilla) 
	bean sp.
		a:yekuh (C) 

chilmol, chirmol
	a kind of sauce
		chi:lmul (C) 
		chi:lmol (SD) 

chilpepe, chiltepe, chilepulga, chiltepi 
	chili sp., chili pepper sp. 
		chi:ltekpin (C, SD) 

Chilteopan (lugar)
	Chilteopan (place name)  
		chi(:)ltyupan (C) 

chiltepe, chilpepe, chilepulga, chiltepi 
	chili sp., chili pepper sp. 
		chi:ltekpin (C, SD) 

chiltomate
	chili sp., chili pepper sp. 
		chi:ltuma-t (SD) 

chiltota (pajaro)
	bird sp. (oriole ?)
		chi:ltutituh (C) 
		chi:ltutu-t (SD) 

chimbolo (pescado)
	fish sp.
		pu:te-t (C) 
		tsunchichik (SD) 

chimichaco, quimilila (varita, carrizo) 
	reed sp., cane sp.
		chimicha:ka-t (C) 

chimpe (el ultimo hijo)
	the last or youngest son 
		chimpe (C) 
		chi:mpe (SD) 

"el Chimpe" (Nanahuatzin, personaje mitologico) 
	"the Youngest Son" (mythological being) 
		na:na:watsin (C) 

chimpito
	the youngest or last son
		chimpituh (C) 

chinaste, matriz, ovario
	womb, ovary, egg inside chicken    
		xina:ch (C) 
		-xina:ch (SD) 

chinche
	bedbug (?)
		chi:nchin (C) 
		chi:nchi(:)n (SD) 

chineado, regazo
	lap
		-elpan (SD) 

chinear, abrazar
	to cuddle, to embrace 
		napalua (SD) 
		tanapalua (SD) "chinear (a alguien), estar chineando"

chinear en la pierna (apapachar en el regazo)
	to hold on one's lap
		metspanua (C) 

chingaste
	dregs, grounds, sediment
		pu:su:lka (C) "chingaste, pozol, caxte, rapa" 
		pusulka (SD) "chingaste, pozol, caxte, rapa" 
		-tsinkach-yu (SD) "chingaste, xinga, pozol (asiento, sedimento)"  
		-xi:nka (C) "chingaste,  pozol, asientos, residuo, sedimento humedo"

chipilin
	plant sp. (a condiment)
		kili-t (C) 

chipote, chibola 
	bump, lump, knot 
		tsukul (C) 

chipuste (chipote) 
	lump, bump, knot, clod, marimba 
		sticks, penis chipu:s (C) 
		chipusti (SD) 
		i:xchibolahyu (SD) "chipuste, chibola"

chiquero, corral, cerco
	pigpen, corral, fense
		ku:lal (SD) 

chiquirin
	cicada ?, sea shrimp ? 
		chikirin (SD) 

chiquito
	small, little
		chikitik (SD) 
		tulupah (SD) 

chira, llaga
	sore, wound
		chirah

chirivisco (palitos secos, ramitas) 
	kindling, small sticks 
		ku:tapipis (C) 
		ku:tsitsin (SD) 

chirmol, chilmol
	a kind of sauce 
		chi:lmul (C) 
		chi:lmol (SD) 

chismosa
	gossip, gossipy woman 
		abladora (SD) 
		linguda(h) (SD) 

chismuyo, chijuyo, chijmuyo (pajaro) 
	bird sp.
		tsikmu:yu (C) 
		tsikmuyu (SD) 

chispa
	spark
		i:xtemu:yu-t (SD) 
		temu:yu-t (SD) 
		timu:yu(:)-t (C) 

chispetear, chispear
	to spark
		-chiwa chispiar (SD) 

chiva, cobija
	blanket
		-kwe:n-yu (SD) 

chivos, dados
	dice
		chibos (SD) 

choco, choca
	blind in one eye, one-eyed 
		choka (SD) "choca" 
		choko (SD) "choco" 
		i:xchukulu (C) "choco, ciego" 
		i:xpupuyu-t (SD) "choco, ciego"

chocolate
	chocolate
		chukula-t (C, SD) 

chompipe, jolote, guajolote (pavo)
	turkey
		chumpi (SD) 
		chumpi:pi (C, SD) 
		tsunwewech (Teotepeque)
		wewechu(h) (SD) "chompipe varon"

chonta (pajaro)
	bird sp.
		a:pawiyani (SD) "chonta, sinsontle" 
		te:n-umi-t (C) "chonta (una clase de paloma)"

chorcho, crespa
	crest, comb
		-kere:spa (C) 

chorizo
	sausage
		choriso(h) (SD) 

chucaro, arisco
	wild, untamed, angry (of animals)
		chukaro(h) (SD) 

chucho, perro
	dog
		pe:lu (C, SD) 

chueco, no sirve
	no good, bad
		tesu ye:k (SD) 

chufle
	plant sp. (grows by rivers and gulleys, eaten in soup)
		chuhle (C) 
		chuhleh (SD) 

F
	
faja, cincho
	sash, belt
		pa:xah (C, SD) 

falda, enagua, nagua, refajo
	skirt
		kweya-t (SD) 
		kweyi_t (SD) 
	
faltar
	to lack, to be lacking
		-chiwa hwalta, -chiwa falta (C) 
	
familia
	family
		familya (SD) 
		hwamilya(h) (SD) 
		-miyakwan (C) 
	
favor
	favor
		bien (C) 
		hwabor, fabor (SD) 
	
favor (hacer el)
	to do a favor
		-chiwa fabor "hacer el favor"
	
feo
	ugly
		hierota (SD) 
	
feria, fiesta
	fiesta, fair
		hiesta(h) (SD) 
	
fiar, fiarse
	to borrow, to take on credit 
		takwi (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.) 
		takwiltia (C, SD) "fiar, prestar"
	
fiebre
	fever
		hiebre(h) (SD) 
		tutu:nka:yu-t (C) "fiebre, calentura"
	
fiesta
	fiesta, ceremony
		ilwi-t (C, SD) 

filin, juilin (pescado) 
	fish sp.
		hwilin, filin (SD) 
		xuwilin (C) 

filo
	blade, sharp edge tameh (C) 
		-tan (SD) 

finca
	farm
		finka (SD) 

flaco, delgado
	skinny, thin
		ku:wa:ktuk (SD) "flaco, seco" 
		pitsa:wak (C) 
		pitsa:wak, picha:wak (SD) 
		tewa:ktuk (C) "flaco, peche"

flojo
	loose
		kaxa:ntuk (C) 

flor
	flower
		xu:chi-t (C, SD) 
		xu:chu-t (SD) 

flor de muerto
	flower sp. (lily ?) 
		se:mpuwal (C) 
		se(:)mpuwal (SD) 

flor de pascua
	easter lily
		paskwah tuhtul (C) 

flor de zacate
	grass/straw from which figurines/toys are made 
		sakamiyawal (C) 
		sakana:wal (C) 

floreado, flor (?)
	flower, flowered (?) 
		i:(x)xuchiyu (C) 

florido, pinto
	plaid, motley, of various colors 
		kwikwilihtuk (C) 

forastero
	stranger, foreigner, outsider 
		forastero(h), hurastero(h) (SD) 

fosforo (cerillo)
	match
		ho:sporoh (C) 
		kahiya(h) (SD) 

freir, freirse
	to fry
		tatsuyu:nia (C) "freir (algo), estar friendo" 
		tsuyu:na, tsuyu:nia (SD) "freir"
		tsuyu:nia (C) 
		tsuyu:ni (SD) "freirse"

frente
	forehead
		-kwa:tapal (C) 
		kwa:tapal (SD) 

frente calvo, calvo de la frente
	with bald forehead, bald on the forehead 
		kwa:xi:petsnah (C) 

frijol
	bean
		e:-t (C, SD) 
		i:x-e:-t (SD) 

frijol blanco
	bean sp., "white" 
		bean istake:-t (SD) 

frijol colorado
	bean sp., "red" 
		bean chi:ltike:-t (SD) 

frijol de hormiga
	bean sp., "ant" bean 
		teksistsi:ka-t (SD) 

frijol de milpa
	bean sp., cornfield bean 
		sin-e:-t (SD) 
		tsin-e:-t (C) 

frijol muhuto
	bean sp., bean cooked without liquid 
		e:muhmulu (C) 
		muhmulu (SD) 
		muhmulu:ntuk (SD) 

frijolar
	bean patch, bean field
		e:tal (C) 

frio
	cold
		sesek (SD) 
		sekta:kayul (C) "un frio (persona friolenta)" 
		tasesek (C) 

frio (tener), sentir frio
	to be cold, to feel cold
		sekmiki (C, SD) "tener frio, sentir frio"

frontera
	border, frontier
		hrontera(h) (SD) 

fruta, cosecha de una frut	fruit, picking of a fruit
		-ta:kil (C) 
	
fuego
	fire
te-, ti(:)- (C, SD) 'fuego' (en palabras compuestas) ti:-t (C) 
		ti-t (SD) 

fuente (donde nace el agua), manantial
	spring
		pu:ni a:t (SD) 

fuerte (picante, fuerte de tragos)
	strong (of spicy things or alchoholic drinks)
		kukuk (C) 
		kukuknah (C) "fuerte, algo fuerte"

fuerza
	strength
		-tahpal (C) 

fumar
	to smoke
		chichina (C, SD) 
		-chiwa umar (SD) 
		tachichina (SD) "estar fumando, fumar (algo)"

fustan
	petticoat
		fustan, hustan (SD) 

G
	
gajo
	section (of fruit, cane)
		ga:hu(h) (SD) 
		makpal (C) "gajo, gaja"
		nekpach (C, SD) "gajo, canuto, tajada"
	
galgo
	glutton
		galgu(h) (SD) "galgo, goloso"
		gulusuh, goloso(h) (C) "galgo, jambado" 
		hahambaduh (C) "galgo, jambado"
	
gallina
	chicken
		tihlan (C, SD) 
	
gallina ciega (gusano (?))
	cut worm (?)
		i:xpupuyu:tsin (C) 
	
gallina guinea
	guinea hen, guinea foul 
		tihlan kiniyah (C, SD) 
	
gallo
	rooster
		puyu (Izalco)
	
ganado, vaca
	cow, cattle
		wa:ka:x (C) 
	
gancho
	hook
		cha:kwahtsin (C) "gancho (alzadero)" 
		kuchahkul (SD) "gancho (de madera)"
	
ganso, gansa
	goose
		gansu(h) (SD) 
	
garganta
	throat
		-kupak (C) "garganta, voz, eco" 
		kupak (SD) "garganta, voz, eco" 
		-tuskak (C, SD) "garganta"
	
garlito; carrizo
	fish trap; reed
		a:ka-t (SD) 

garra, una
	claw, fingernail
		isti-t (C) 
		itsti-t (SD) 

garrapata
	tick
		texkan (C, SD) 

garrapatilla
	small tick sp. 
		ma:kwahkwa (SD) 

garrasposo, borrunoso, chiboloso, chiboludo 
	knotty, rough, bumpy, lumpy 
		i:xtsuhtsukul (SD) 
		i:xtsuhtsukulnah (C) 

garrobo, iguana, guexpo 
	iguana
		ku:ke (SD) 
		ku:ketspal (C) 

garrotear, pegar, golpear (con algo) 
	to beat, to hit, to club 
		ku:witeki (SD) 

garza
	crane, heron
		garsa(h) (SD) 

gastar
	to spend
		-chiwa gastuh (SD) 

gatas (a)
	on all fours, crawling
		tupak (C) "a gatas"

gatear, andar a gatas
	to crawl, to go on all fours 
		mu-ma:pelua (SD) 

gato
	cat
		mistu:n (C, SD) 
		mistu:ntsin (C) "gatito"

gato de monte, gato onza, gato sonta 
	wildcat, bobcat
		ustu:tsin (C) 

gavilan
	hawk
		kwix-ti (C) 
		tu(:)h-ti (SD) 

gente
	people, person
		krsitanuh (C, SD) 

gentio
	crowd
		hentiyah (SD) 

gigante
	giant, gigantic, huge, large 
		ko:htik (SD) 
		ku:htik (C) 
		ombronaso(h) (SD) 
		tumak (SD) "gigante, grande"

girar, rodar(se), revolcar(se)
	to turn around, to revolve, to rotate
		i:xmimilua (C) (t.v., r.v.)

gobernar
	to govern, to dominate
		maka dominya (SD) 

godorniza (codorniz) 
	quail
		su:lin (C) welchah (SD) 

golondrina
	swallow
		gulundrina(h) (SD) 

goloso, galgo 
	glutton
		galgu(h) (SD) 

golpe de hacer tortillas, tortilla
	tortilla, the noise of patting out tortillas
		taxkal (C) 

golpear
	to hit
		chalua (C, SD) "golpear, pegar"
		chahchalua (C, SD) "golpear, dar golpes, estar golpeando" 
		tachalua (C, SD) "estar golpeando"
		witeki (C, SD) "golpear, pegar, castigar, azotar" 
		ku:witeki (SD) "golpear, pegar (con algo), garrotear" 
		tawiteki (C, SD) "estar golpeando, pegando, aporreando"

gonce, nudillo
	hinge, knuckle, joint
		-gonsah (SD) 

gordo
	fat
		ku:tumak (C) "gordo, grueso" 
		ku:tuma:wak (C) "gordo, grueso" 
		tuma:wak (C, SD) 
		tumaknah (C) "medio gordo, algo gordo"

gordura, gruesura, el grueso (de algo)
	fat, fatness
		tumahka (C) 

gorjear, cantar
	to warble, to sing
		takwi:ka (SD) 

gotear
	to drip
		chipi:ni (C, SD) 
		taixi:ka (C) 
		taxi:ka (C, SD) 

gracias, Dios se lo pague 
	thanks
		dios-se-lo-page (SD) 
		pa:mpa diyux (C) 

grada
	step
		grada(h) (SD) 

grado(s) 
	step, degree
		gradus (SD) 

granadilla montes
	wild vine sp. (with a fruit like pomegranate)
		winku:lax (C) 

granda-hueso (zopilote rey)
	vulture sp. (red-headed vulture)
		tu(:)hti tsunchi:ltik (SD) 

grande
	big, large
		ombron (SD) 
		tumak (SD) "grande, gigante" 
		we:y (C) 

granizo
	hail
		granisu(h) (SD) 
		tesihkwil (SD) 

grano (barro)
	pimple, boil
		pusa (C, SD) "grano, nacido" 
		sa:wa-t (C, SD) "grano" 
		taxwi:s (C) "grano, nacido" 
		tsu:tsu (C) "grano, divieso"

grano (semilla)
	grain, seed
		i:x (SD) 

grano de maiz
	kernel of corn
		i:x tawiyal (SD) 

granudo (de masa), mal molido, xara 
	grainy, badly ground, gritty 
		payaxnah (C, SD) 

grenudo, cabello alborotado
	with mussed up hair, unkempt
		ku:pahsulnah (C) 

grillo
	cricket
		xupilin (C) 
		xupi:lin (SD) 

gringo (norteamericano o europeo)
	"gringo" (North American, European, any light-skinned foreigner)
		gringu (SD) 

gritar
	to shout
		tsahtsi (C, SD) 

grueso
	thick
		cha:ma:wak (SD) 
		ku:tumak, ku:tuma:wak (C) "grueso, gordo" 
		tila:wak (C, SD) "grueso, doble"

gruesura, gordura (el grueso de algo)
	thickness
		tumahka (C) 

guacal (jicara), morro, palo de morro
	gourd
		wahkal (C, SD) 
guacalchia (pajaro)
	bird sp.
		warakchiyu (C) 

guaco (raiz medicinal)
	a medicinal root
		iyak-mi:ku (C) 

guacoco (arbolito)
	small tree sp. 
		chahchi:lkwawi-t (C) 

guacse, guacsin, guactsin, guause (pajaro)
	bird sp.
		waktsin (C, SD) 

guajmol, cuajmol, quiamol (raiz que se usa para banarse) 
	a root (used for bathing)
		kiyahmul (C) 
		kiyahmu:l (SD) 

guajolote, jolote, chompipe 
	turkey
		chumpi (SD) 
		chumpi:pi (C, SD) 
		wewechu(h) (SD) "guajolote, macho, chompipe varon"

gualchaque, gualxaque, guaxaque (espanto en forma de un ave grande como chompipe)
	a supernatural being/spook in the form of a big bird like a turkey
		walchakeh (SD) 
		waxake, waxa:keh (C) 

guanacaste, conacaste, cuanacaste 
	(arbol) tree sp., "guanacaste" tree
		ku:nakas (C, SD) 

guapa, guapo, hermosa, hermoso 
	pretty, handsome
		ga:la:n (C) 
		galan (SD) 

guapo (de hombre) 
	handsome 
		ihi:chnah (C) 

guapote, zambo (pescado)
	catfish 
		puhul (C) 

guara (pajaro)
	bird sp.
		kwesalin (C) 
		tekechul (C) "guara, pacuil, pajuil"

guardar (alzar)
	to keep, to put up, to store
		ahke:wa (C) 
		ta:hke:wa (C) "guardar (algo)"
guardian, curandero
	guard, curer
		wardian (SD) 

guaro, licor
	cane liquor, corn liquor
		wa:ruh (SD) 

guarumo (arbol)
	tree sp.
		ku:papay (C) 
		kupapaya (SD) 

guatal, potrero
	overgrown or uncleared land, canebreak (?) 
		u:watal (C, SD) 

guatalear, rozar, desmontar
	to clear land of vegetation
		xa:wa (C) 
		xawa (SD) 

guate, chacho (fruta endosada)
	twin, double (of joined fruit) 
		chachawa-t (C) 

Guatemala
	Guatemala
		chapin (SD) "Guatemala, guatemalteco" 
		gwatemala, watemala (SD) 

guatusa, coatusa, cotusa, cuatusa
	agouti, paca
		kutu:x (C, SD) 

guavina, guabina (pescado)
	fish sp.
		te:mpitsa (C) 

guayaba
	guava
		cha:luku-t (C, SD) 

guayabillo
	small guava sp.
		chalchuku-t (C) 
guerra
	war
		gerra(h) (SD) 

guexpo, garrobo, iguana
	iguana
		ku:ke (SD) 
		ku:ketspal (C) 

guiliguixte 
	(arbol) tree sp.
		wi:lu-i:x (C) 

guindar, colgar 
	to hang
		nenwila:nia (C) 
		pilua (SD) 

guineo (platano, banana) 
	banana
		kiniyah (C, SD) 

guisamper, huisamper (bejuco) 
	vine sp.
		champe:ris, champeris (C) 

guiscoyol (clase de palma)
	palm sp. 
		kuyul (SD) 
		witskuyul (C, SD) 
	
guisquil, huizquil (chayote) 
	chayote
		witskili-t (C) 

guistomate (arbusto)
	bush sp.
		witstuma-t (C, SD) 

guitarra
	guitar
		gita:rrah (C) 

guitarron (avispa)
	large wasp sp. 
		xi:kugitarra(h) (SD) 
guixte (pedazo de vidrio) 
	piece of broken glass 
		lime:tah (C) 
		limetah (SD) 
		wixti (C) 
		talumet (SD) 

gusanillo de mosca (queresa) 
	maggot
		ihkwi:ch (C) 
		ihkwich (SD) 

gusano, lombriz
	worm
		kwilin (C, SD) 

gusano pelado del rio
	a water insect with a hundred legs 
		a:petasul (SD) 

gusano que alumbra en la noche
	glowworm
		ta:lu:mi-t (C) 
				
H
	
haber (hay)
	there is, there are
		nemi (C, SD) "hay, ser, estar" 
		su kanah (C) "no hay"
		tesu kanah (SD) "no hay"
	
haber bastante, abundar
	to abound, for there to be lots
		tepe:wi (SD) 

habla o lenguaje que no se entiende, tartamudo
	speech or language that is not understood, stutterer 
		pupuluka (C) (n.)
	
hablar
	to speak
		ina (SD) (i.v.) "hablar, decir"
		nu:tsa (C, SD) 
		taketsa (C, SD) "hablar, platicar"
	
hablar contra, criticar
	to criticize, to speak against
		tehte:newa (SD) 
		te:ne:wa (C) 

hablar no muy bien, no hablar bien 
	not to speak well
		pupuluka (C) 
	
hablar suavecito, calladito (en voz baja)
	to speak softly, to whisper
		pupuluka (SD) 
	
hacer
	to make
		chiwa (C, SD) 
hacer dormir, adormecer
	to put to sleep, to cause to sleep, to get to sleep 
		kuchte:ka (C) 
		kuchteka (SD) 

hacer hoyo, abrir hoyo 
	to make a hole 
		takuyuna (C, SD) 

hacer llorar
	to cause to cry, to make someone cry 
		chu:kaltia (SD) 
		chu:ktia (C) 

hacer pita (hilar), torcer pita (mecate)
	to make string/thread, to twist string/thread
		ichma:lini (SD) 
		tamali:na (C) 

hacer ropa (tejer (?))
	to make clothes (to weave ?)
		tsa:wa (SD) 

hacer reir
	to cause to laugh, to make laugh 
		pa:ktia (C) 

hacer reirse (a alguien)
	to make someone laugh
		te:paktia (C) 

hacer tapesco, amarrar con pita (mecate), arreglar, empenar
	to tie together  with string, to assemble, to make a frame with netting
		pi:ki (C, SD) 

hacer tortillas, tortear
	to make tortillas
		taxkalua (C, SD) 
		te:ka (SD) 

hacerse negro, negrearse volverse negro
	to turn black, to get black, to become black 
		ti:ltiya (SD) 

'hacia aca (prefijo direccional)
	'toward' (directional prefix)
		(w)al- (C, SD) 

hacia atras, atras
	behind
		tateputstah (C) 

hacha
	axe
		a:chah (SD) 
		ha:chah (C) 

hachar palos, rozar palos, botar palos (tumbar, cortar arboles) 
	to chop down trees
		tsine:wa (C, SD) 

hachita (obsidiana)
	obsidian, piece of worked obsidian 
		achitah (SD) 

hallar, encontrar
	to find
		ahsi (C, SD) 
		(w)alahsi (C) 

hamaca
	hammock
		a:makah (C, SD) 

hamaca para ninos 
	children's hammock 
		chi:wix (C) 

hambre
	hunger
		mayan (C, SD) 

hambre (tener)
	to be hungry
		maya:na (C) "tener hambre" 
		mayana (SD) "tener hambre"

haragan (flojo, perezoso)
	lazy, a lazy person
		tixkwi-t (SD) 

haragan (ser), tener pereza 
	to be lazy, to feel lazy 
		tatsiwi (C, SD) 

harina 
	flour
		arina(h) (SD) 

hartarse (de comida), llenarse (de comida) 
	to be full (of food), to eat to satiation 
		i:xwi (C, SD) 

hasta
	until
		asta (C, SD) 
		axta (C) 

hasta ahora
	until now, up to now 
		sanuk (C) 

hasta manana
	until tomorrow
		mu:stayuk (C) 

hay
	there is, there are
		nemi (C, SD) "hay, ser, estar"

hay (no), no hay
	there is not, there are not
		su kanah (C) "no hay"
		tesu kanah (SD) "no hay"
	
hechizar
	to bewitch, to hex
		-chiwa danyu(h) (SD) 
		-chiwa embenenar (SD) 

heder, apestar
	to stink
		ihya:ya (C, SD) 

hediondo, apestoso
	stinking
		ihyak (C, SD) 

helada, frio
	cold
		tasesek (C) 

herida
	wound
		pelechnah (C) "herida todavia no compuesta, fruta raspada" 
		tsu:tsu (SD) "llaga, herida"

herir, herirse
	to wound
		tsunteki (C) "herir"
		tsunteki (SD) (t.v., r.v.) 

hermana (menor) de hombre
	man's (younger) sister 
		-eltiw, -weltiw (SD) 

hermana mayor, tia
	elder sister, aunt 
		-pi:pi (C) 

hermana mayor de mujer 
	woman's elder sister 
		pi:pi (SD) 

hermana menor de mujer 
	woman's younger sister 
		-i:ka-w (SD) 

hermano
	brother
		-manu(h) (SD) 

hermano mayor
	elder brother
		-ma:n (C) 

hermano menor, hermana menor
	younger brother, younger sister
		-i:ka-w (C) 

hermosa, bonita
	beautiful, pretty
		galana (SD) 

hermoso, hermosa, guapo, guapa      
	beaautiful, handsome
		ga:la:n (C) 
		galan (SD) 

hervir
	to boil
		kwakwalaka (C, SD) (i.v.)

hiel
	bile, gall
		-chichi:ka (C) 
		-chichika (SD) 

hierba de tinta
	plant sp., "ink plant" 
		sakatinta(h) (SD) 

hierbabuena, yerbabuena 
	mint
		yerbabwena(h) (SD) 

hierro
	iron, metal
		tepus-ti (C)
		tepu:s-ti (SD) 

higado
	liver
		-eltapach (C, SD) 

hija
	daughter
		-siwa:kune:-w (SD) 

hijastra
	stepdaughter
		entenada (SD) 

hijastro
	stepson
		entenado (SD) 

hijo!, nino! (termino para hablar a ninos, muchachos) 
	boy! (term of address for boys)
		chu:leh (C) 
hijo
	son
		-pi:pil (SD) 
		-te:lpu:ch (C, SD) 

hijo del sol (albino)
	albino
		i:xmu:hmuts (C) 

hilo
	thread
		ikpa-t (SD) (arcaico) 
		i:le:rah (C, SD) 

hinchado, con hinchazon 
	swelled, swollen
		sulu:ntuk (C) 

hinchado de la barriga
	with swollen belly/stomach 
		ihtisulu:ntuk (C) 

hinchado de la boca
	with swollen mouth 
		te:nsulu:ntuk (C) 

hinchado de la mano
	with swollen hand
		ma:sulu:ntuk (C) 

hinchado de los ojos, arrugado de la cara 
	with swollen eyes, wrinkled face 
		i:x(x)uhxupilnah (C) 

hinchado del pie
	with swollen foot
		(i)kxisulu:ntuk (C) 

hincharse, inflamarse
	to swell
		sulu:ni (C, SD) 

hipo
	hiccough
		tsukunawi (C, SD) 

hocico
	snout
		-chi:mal (C) 
		-te:nchi:mal (C) 

hoja
	leaf
		iswa-t (C, SD) 

hollin
	soot
		kalkwech (C) 

hombre
	man
		ta:ka-t (C, SD) 

hombre haragan, vago
	lazy man, bum
		ta:kapala (C) 

honda
	sling, slingshot
		ondiya (SD) "honda, hondilla" 
		tema:ta-t (C) 

hondilla
	sling, slingshot
		ka:chamblaka (C) 
		ondiyah (SD) "honda, hondilla"

hondillazo
	a hit with a sling(shot) 
		ondiyasu(h) (SD) 

hondo
	deep
		miktan (C, SD) 

hongo
	mushroom
		na:naka-t (C) 
		ongo(h) (SD) 

hongo (una clase de hongo) 
	mushroom sp.
		xumpe (C) 

hongo de palo, tenquiqui
	mushroom sp.
		ku:nanaka-t (SD) 

honrado
	honest, just, fair, honourable 
		onrado(h) (SD)

hora, a la hora que
	hour, at the time that
		o:rah, u:rah (C)   

horcon
	house post
		taketsal (C, SD) 

hormiga
	ant
		tsi:ka-t (SD) 

hormiga tigra, turunca
	ant sp., "tiger" ant 
		ku:lutsi:ka-t (C, SD) 

hormiguero
	anthill, ant nest 
		tsihtsi:katkal (SD) 

horno
	oven
		orniyuh (SD) 

horrible, terrible
	horrible, terrible
		fierota (SD) 
		terrible(h) (SD) 

hoy, ahora
	today, now
		a:n (SD) 
		a:xa:n (C) 
		a(:)xa(:)n (SD) 
		seman (SD) 

hoyo (hacer)
	to make a hole
		-chiwa oyoh (SD) "hacer hoyo, abrir hoyo" 
		kuyuna (SD) "hacer hoyo, abrir agujero" 
		kuyunia (C) "hacer hoyo, abrir agujero" 
		takuyuna (C, SD) "estar haciendo hoyo(s)"

hoyuelo, camanance
	dimples
		kamanantsin (C, SD) 

hueco
	hollow
		weku(h) (SD) 

huele-de-noche (arbol)
	tree sp.
		i:xkwa-t (SD) 
		takwatsin kwawi-t (SD) "huele-de-noche, palo de tacuazin"

huerfano
	orphan
		iknupil (C, SD) 
		iknu:tsin (C, SD) 
		pepe (SD) 

hueso
	bone
		u:mi-t (C, SD) 

hueso de fruta, pepita 
	pit, fruit seed 
		i:x (C, SD) 

hueso de zapote
	zapote pit, zapote seed 
		tsapuyu:luh (SD) 

huevo, testiculo
	egg, testicle
		teksis-ti (C, SD) 

huir
	to flee, to run away 
		chu:lua (C, SD) 

huisamper, guisamper
	vine sp.
		champe:ris, champeris (C) 

huiscoyol, guiscoyol
	palm sp.
		witskuyul (C, SD) 

huizquil, guisquil
	chayote
		witskili-t (SD) 

hule
	rubber
		uhle (SD) 
		uhli (C) 

humar (fumar)
	to smoke
		-chiwa umar (SD) 

humedo
	damp, wet
		ta:lahwi (C) 
		ta:lahwituk (C) 

humillarse, encogerse, esconderse, evitar
	 to duck, to shrink away, to avoid 
		mu-kuyulua (C, SD) 

humo
	smoke
		puk-ti (C, SD) 

humo (echar)
	to smoke, to give off smoke
		mumulutsa (C) (t.v., redup.) "echar humo"

humo de copal
	copal incense smoke
		tapupuch (C) 

humoso, ahumado
	smoky
		pukyuhtuk (C) 

hundir, hundirse
	to sink, to immerse
		a:kalaktia (C, SD) "hundir"
		a:pachua (C, SD) "hundir, meter en el agua" 
		a:kalaki (C, SD) "hundirse, entrar en el agua"

huracan
	strong wind, storm, hurricane
		bruhu(h) (SD) 
		tormentah (C) "huracan, tempestad" 
		urakan (SD) 
	
huso, malacate
	spindle
		malaka-t (C, SD) 
				
I

idioma
	language
		idioma(h) (SD) 
	
iglesia
	church
		iglesiya(h) (SD) 
		tyupan, t(i)yupan (C) 
		tyu:pan, t(i)yu:pan (SD) 
	
igual 
	equal, same
		iwal (SD) 
		ke:n-a (C) 
		ke:n-ake:n (SD) "igual, igual como"
	
iguana, garrobo, guexpo
	iguana
		ku:ke (SD) 
		ku:ketspal (C) 
	
iguana dorada
	iguana sp.
		xi:wtek (C) 
		
ijiyo (mal olor, aliento) 
	breaath, bad smell 
		-ihiyu (C, SD) 
	
ilama (pescado)
	fish sp. (like an eel)
		alak michin (C) 
		lamah-michin (C, SD) 

imaginar, imaginarse
		to imagine
		i:xkehketsa (SD) "imaginar, pensar" 
		tamati (C) "imaginar, adivinar"
	
incensario, sahumeador
	brasier, clay incense dish
		tikaxi-t (SD) 

incordio, encordia
	turmor or lump in groin
		metskaxil (C) 
		-metstawiyal (SD) 
		-metstawiyal-yu (C) 

indigena
	Indian
		indi(y)us (SD) 
		
indigestado (?)
	with indigestion
		indihestado(h) (SD) 

inflamarse, hincharse
	to swell
		sulu:ni (C, SD) 

inflar, soplar, sorber
	to inflate, to blow up, to sip
		i:xpitsa (C, SD) 

influencias (tener), tener cuello, tener palanca
	to have influential connections, to be well connected   
		-piya garantiyah (C) 

ingle, encajes
	groin
		-maxak (C) 

inmaduro, tierno
	immature, tender
		selek (C, SD) 

insipido, sin sabor
	insipid, tasteless
		a:sesek (C) 

insultar, ofender
	to insult, to offend 
		ihilwia (C) 

intercambiar, cambiar(selo) 
	to exchange, change 
		tapatilia (C, SD) 

intestino, tripas 
	intestine(s)
		-kwitaxkul (C) 
		-tripah-yu (SD) 
		tuxih (SD) 

invierno (tempurada de lluvias) 
	winter (rainy season)
		xu:pan (C, SD) 

invisible
	invisible
		tesu ne:si (C) 

invitar
	to invite
		-chiwa kombidar (SD) 

inyectar, pullar, picar
	to inject, to poke, to sting, to stab
		tsupina (SD) 

ir
	to go
		yawi (C, SD) 

ir brincando, corriendo
	to go along jumping, running 
		mu-tahtamu:ta (C) 

iscanal (arbol)
	tree sp.
		axkanel (C) 
		ixkanal (SD) 

isco, ixco, lindero 
	boundary marker
		i:xku (C) 

Ishuatan (lugar) 
	Ishuatan (place name) 
		tsaputan (C) 

Ishuatecos (gente de Ishuatan) 
	Ishuatanites 
		tsaputantekamet (C) 

isla
	island
		laisla (SD) 

isote, izote
	plant sp. (like yucca) 
		iksu-t (C) 
		yuliksu-t (C) 

istaten (arbol)
	tree sp.
		istatenan (C) 

Izalco (lugar)
	Izalco (place name) 
		isalku (SD) 

izote, isote
	plant sp. (like yucca ?) 
		iksu-t (C) 
		yuliksu-t (C) 
			
J

jabon 
	soap
		xapun (C, SD) 

jadearse, cansarse
	to pant, to get tired, to become exhausted
		sutawaya (SD) 

jaguar, "tigre"
	jaguar, "tiger"
		tekwani (Teotepeque)

jaiba
	large crab sp. 
		a:matskal (C) 

jalar
	to pull
		tila:na (C, SD) 

jambado, galgo
	glutton
		goloso(h), gulusuh (C) hahambaduh (C) 

jaral flosion (fluxion, inflamacion o irritacion de los ojos) 
	swelling or irritation of the eyes
		hlsosion, flosion (SD) 

jarro
	jug
		xukchin (Tacuba)

javali, tunco de monte 
	peccary
		kohtan kuyame-t (SD) 
		ku(:)htan kuyame-t (C) 

jefe
	boss
		hefe(h) (SD) 

jejen
	gnat
		te:n-ulu-t (C) 
		xa:lmu:yu-t (SD) 

jengibre
	ginger
		yinhibre(h) (SD) 

Jesucristo, Nuestro Senor 
	Jesus Christ, Our Lord 
		tutahtsin (C) 

jeta
	snout, animal's lip 
		-te:nxi:pal (C) "jeta, labio"
		-te:nxi:pal (SD) "jeta, labio (de animal)" 
		-xetah (SD) "jeta, labio"

jicama
	a large edible root
		xi:kama (C) 
		xikamah (SD) 

jicara
	gourd bowl
		hulun (C) 
		wahkal (C, SD) "jicara, guacal, morro" 
		xi:kal (C) "jicara, tarro"
		xu:lun  (SD) "jicara,  julon,  morro, cascaron de huevo o de coco"

jicote (clase de avispa)
	wasp sp.
		xi:kuh (C, SD) 

jila (arbol, flor)
	tree sp., flower sp.
		xila (C, SD)        

jilote
	tender or immature corn (green ears that have not yet developed kernels)
		xi:lu-t (C, SD) 

jiote
	peeling skin, skin desease (impetigo ?)
		xi:nyu (C) 
		xinyu (SD) 

jiote (arbol)
	tree sp.
		ixi:nyu-kwawi-t, xi:nyu-kwawi-t (C) 

jobo
	hogplum sp.
		alakxuku-t (C) 

jocote (tejocote)
	hogplum
		xuku-t (C, SD) 

jolote, chompipe (guajolote)
	turkey
		chumpi (SD) 
		chumpi:pi (C, SD) 
		tsunwewech (Teotepeque)
jorobado
	hunchbacked, humpbacked
		teputsmu:ku (C) 

joven! (termino para hablar a ninos, muchachos) 
	boy! (term of address for boys)
		chu:leh (SD) 

joven, muchacho, soltero
	young man, boy, bachelor
		piltsin (C) 

jugar
	to play
		a:wiltia (C) (t.v., r.v.)

jugo
	juice
		hu:gu(h) (SD) 

juguete
	toy
		a:wil-ti (C, SD) 

jugueton
	playful person
		ma:wiltiyani (C) 

juilin, filin (pescado)
	fish sp.
		xuwilin (C) 

julon, morro, jicara, cascaron de huevo o de coco" 
	shell, egg shell, gourd, coconut shell
		xu:lun (SD) 

junta, reunion
	meeting
		hunta(h) (SD) 
juntar, amontonar
	to gather, to heap, to pile 
		pu:tsua (C, SD) 
junto
	together, next to
		huntik (SD) "junto a"
		-tech (C, SD) "junto a, cerca de, pegado con, contra" 
		-na:wak (C, SD) "junto con, cerca de"

junto al fuego
	next to the fire, near the fire
		te:n-ti:-t (C) 
		te:n-ti-t (SD) 

juntos
	together
		se:n- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas)

juntos (estar), estar juntos 
	to be together
		se:nkak (SD) 

justamente, mismo, solo 
	just, only
		-san (C, SD) 

jute (caracol de agua) 
	(water) snail
		xuti (C, SD) 

jute (clase de jute, caracol) 
	snail sp.
		i:xpe:l (SD) 
		i:xpe:lxuti (SD) 
	
jute venenoso (caracol)
	snail sp. (poisonous)
		kuku:luxuti (C) 
	
juzgar
	to judge
		-chiwa husgar (SD)
 
L
	
la, el (articulo definido)
	the (definite article)
		ne (C, SD) 
	
labio
	lip
		-te:n ewayu (SD) 
	
labio, jeta
	lip, snout
		-te:nxi:pal (C) 
		-te:nxi:pal (SD) "jeta, labio de animal" 
		-xetah (SD) 
	
labio leporino
	harelip
		heton (SD) 
	
ladearse, ladear
	to lean, to be leaning
		mu-nekwilua (C, SD) "ladearse"
		nekwilua (SD) "ladear"
	
ladina
	ladina, Latin woman 
		mulata(h) (SD) 
	
ladino
	latino, Latin man
		ehkuni (C) "ladino, extranjero"
		mulatu(h) (SD) 

lado (al lado de)
	beside, along side of 
		-nakastan (SD) "al lado de"

ladrar, latir, reganar
	to bark, to scold
		ahahwa (C, SD) 
		ahwa (C, SD) 

ladrillo, adobe 
	brick, adobe 
		lagriyuh (SD) 

ladron
	thief
		manoso(h) (SD) 

lagartija (cf. tenguereche) 
	lizard
		kwixin (Teotepeque)

lagartija (una clase de) 
	lizard sp.
		kakawana (C) 
		ka:kawani (SD) 
		tsumpalachu (SD) 
		tsunkareta (SD) 

lagarto
	alligator, cayman 
		lagartu, lagarto (SD) 

lago
	lake
		la:guh (C) 

lagrima
	tear
		i:xa:yu (C, SD) 

lamber (cf. lamer)
lamer, lamber
	to lick
		i:xpalua (C, SD) 
		tai:xpalua (C) "estar lamiendo"

lana
	wool
		la:nah (SD) 

lancha, canoa
	canoe, launch
		kanuwah (SD) 

lapiz
	pencil
		lapis (SD) 

largo
	long
		i:xku(h)weyak (C) "largo, cosa larga" 
		kuweyak (SD) "largo, terminado en punta" 
		weyak (C, SD) "largo"

Las Marias (un canton de Cuisnahuat) 
	Las Marias (a hamlet of Cuisnahuat) 
		mariyahtepe:-t (C)             

latido, aullo, aullido
	howl, howling
	ku:yu:chu:ka (C) 
	ku:yuchu:ka (SD) 

latir, ladrar, reganar 
	to bark, to scold 
		ahahwa (C, SD) 
		ahwa (C, SD) 
		tiahwa (C, SD) 

laurel
	laurel tree
		lawrel (SD) 

lavado (el lavado, ropa lavada)
	the wash
		tapak(-)ti (C, SD) 

lavandera
	washerwoman
		tapa:kani (C) 

lavar, lavarse
	to wash
		mu-a:paka (SD) "lavarse"
		i:xpa:ka (C, SD) "lavar (p. ej. trastes)" 
		mu-i:xpupu:wa (C) "lavarse, limpiarse" 
		mu-ma:pa:ka "lavarse" 
		pa:ka (C) (t.v., r.v.) "lavar, lavarse" 
		tai:xpa:ka (C) "estar lavando (trastes)"

lavarse el pie
	to wash one's feet
		mu-kxipa:ka (C) 

lavarse la barriga
	to wash one's belly, stomach 
		mu-ihtia:paka (SD) 

lavarse la boca
	to wash one's one 
		mu-te:mpa:ka (SD) 

lavarse la cabeza
	to wash one's head 
		mu-tsumpa:ka (C) 

lavarse la cara
	to wash one's face 
		mu-i:xpa:ka (SD) 

lavarse las manos
	to wash one's hands 
		mu-ma:paka (C, SD) 

lavarse las nalgas
	to wash one's buttocks 
		mu-tsina:paka (SD) 

lavar por primera vez
	to wash for the first time 
		a:wia (SD) 

lechuga
	lettuce
		lechuga(h) (SD) 

leer
	to read
		a:ma-ita (C) 
		-chiwa leer (SD) 

leganas, cheles
	sleepy seeds, mucus that forms in the eyes during sleep
		i:xchihche:le (C) 

lejia
	lye
		lehiya(h) (SD) 

lejos 
	far
		wehka (C, SD) 

lengua (la lengua indigena)
	language (the native language)
		lengwah (SD) 
lengua
	tongue
		-nenepil (C) 
lengua-de-vaca (planta)
	plant sp. ("cow's-tongue")
		lengwah-baka(h) (SD) 

lenguage o habla que no se entiende, tartamudo
	language or speech that is not understood, stuttered 
		pupuluka (C) (n.)

lena, madera, arbol 
	firewood
		kwawi-t (C, SD) 

lena podrida
	rotten firewood
		ku:pala (C) 
		kuhpala (SD) 

lenar (picar lena, recoger lena) 
	to gather/chop firewood 
		kwahkwawi (C, SD) 

leporino (labio)
	harelip
		heton (SD) "labio leporino"

lerdo
	dull, dumb, stupid
		i:xmehme:le (C) 

letrina
	toilet
		mihkwitayan (C) 

levantar, levantarse
	to raise, to rise, to get up, to lift
		ehkukia (SD) "levantar"
		i:xketsa (C) "levantar"
		ketsa (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.) "levantar(se), parar(se)" 
		tsinketsa (C, SD) "levantar, parar (de punta, de un extremo)"

libelula, veraneno
	dragonfly
		pi:piyahtsin (C) 

libro, papel
	book, paper
		a:ma-t (C, SD) 

licor, guaro
	liquor
		wa:ruh (SD) 

liendre
	nit, louse egg
		ahsi:l (C) 
		ahsil-ti (SD) 

ligosos, liso
	slick, smooth, slimy 
		ala:wak (C, SD) 

lijlicse, clisclis (gavilancillo) 
	small hawk sp.
		lihliktsin (C) 

lima
	lemon
		lala-li(:)ma(h) (SD) 

limon
	lime
		limon (SD) 

limoncillo (arbol)
	tree sp., "small lime" tree 
		limunsiyu(h) (SD) 

limpiar, limpiarse
	to clean
		i:xpupu:wa (SD) "limpiarse" 
		puchina (SD) "limpiar, desplumar" 
		mu-puhpu:pu:wa (SD) "limpiarse (todo el cuerpo)" 
		pu:pu:wa (C, SD) "limpiar(se)"
		tapu:pu:wa (C, SD) "estar limpiando, limpiar (algo)"

limpiar(se) la cara
	to clean the face
		i:xpu:pu:wa (C) (t.v., r.v.)

limpiar milpa, rozar (milpa, monte)
	to clear ground, to weed/clean the milpa
		tayi (C, SD) 

lindero
	boundary marker
		i:xku (C, SD) 

linea recta (en), en formacion recta 
	in a straight line, lined up 
		tekpantuk (C) 

lirio
	lily
		liriu, lirio, liria (SD) 
liso
	smooth
		ala:wak (C, SD) "liso, ligoso" 
		petstik (C) 
		ta:la:wak (C) 
		tsutsuluka (C) "liso (extendido, p. ej. de un mantel)"

liston
	ribbon
		-tahkwi:l (SD) 

liviano, bofito
	light (not heavy)
		ahkatik (SD) 
		wahchultik (C) 

lo mismo da
	it doesn't matter, it's all the same 
		kehke:n aya (C) 
		kiuniha (SD) 

loco
	crazy
		loko (SD) 
		tsun-eheka-t (C, SD) "loco, pasmado"
		tsunte-t (SD) "loco, tonto, cabeza de piedra"

lodo
	mud
		pu:lul (C, SD) 

lombriz
	worm
		kwilin (C, SD) 
		pi:kal (SD) 

pilley (Tacuba)
	lombriz de la barriga intestinal worm 
		pi(:)yal (SD) 

lombriz medidor
	inch worm
		kwilin medidor (SD) 

lomo (espalda)
	hump, back
		-teputs (C) 

loro, lora
	parrot
		lora(h) (SD) 

loroco, oloroco (verdura) 
	plant sp. (edible vine) 
		masa:kili-t (C, SD) 

losa, cajete
	clay dish, bowl
		kaxi-t (C, SD) 

luciernaga, lucerna 
	fire-fly, lightning bug 
		i:xkipitsin (C) 
		i:xpitsin (SD) 

luego, pronto
	soon, right away 
		neman-a (C, SD) 

lugar de (sufijo)
	place of (suffix)   
		-tan (C, SD) 

lumpe (trampa o red para pescados) 
	fish trap, small fish net
		lumpe (SD) 

luna 
	moon
		me:ts-ti (C, SD) 

luna nueva
	new moon
		kune:t me:ts-ti (C) 
		selek me:ts-ti (SD) 

lunar
	mole
		-lunar (SD)
 
LL

llaga, herida
	sore, wound
		tsu:tsu (SD) 

llamar
	to call
		tsahtsalia (SD) 
		(w)alnu:tsa (C) "llamar, ir a llamar"

llano
	plain
		planada(h) (SD) 
		planchin (SD) 
		yanura (C) 

llegar
	to arrive
		ahsi (C, SD) "llegar, hallar, alcanzar, caber" 
		ehku (C, SD) "llegar"
		(w)alehku (C, SD) "llegar (aca)"

llena (de la luna)
	full (of moon) 
		yena(h) (SD) 

llenar, llenarse
	to fill
		te:ma (C) "llenar" 
		te:mi (C) "llenarse" 
		te:mitia (C) "llenar" 
		yu:ltia (C) "llenar (con)"

llenarse (de comida)
	to be full, satiated (with food)
		i:xwi (C, SD) 

lleno
	full
		te:ntuk (C, SD) 

llevar
	to take; to wear
		ta:lia (C, SD) "llevar (ropa), poner, sentar"
		wi:ka (C, SD) "llevar"
		tawi:ka  (C,  SD) "llevar (algo),  estar llevando" 

(llevar) a memex, al hombro
	to carry on/over one's shoulder
		memech (SD) "a memex, al hombro"

llevar al hombro
	to carry on/over one's shoulder
		kechtanua (C, SD) 

llevar al lomo, poner al hombro, llevar a cucuch
	to carry on/over one's shoulder
		teputswia (C, SD) 

llorar
	to cry
		chu:ka (C, SD) 

lloron
	cry baby (someone who cries a lot) 
		i:xchu:yu (C) 
	
llover
	to rain
		wets a:t (C, SD) 
	
llovizna algo recia
	rain shower, sprinkle (somewhat hard) 
		takwaka:-t (SD) 
	
lloviznar
	to sprinkle (rain)
		tahtatsi:ni (C) "lloviznar, pringar"
		tapitsakxini (C) 
		xihxini (SD) "lloviznar, pringar"
	
lloviznita
	sprinkle (light rain)
		pitsaka:-t (SD) 
	
lluvia, agua
	rain, water
		a:-t (C, SD) 
				
M
	
macizo, duro
	hard
		takwa:wak (C, SD) 
	
macolla
	bunch, cluster
		makoya(h) (SD) 
	
machete
	machete
		mache (C, SD) 
	
machetear, herir
	to cut with a machete, to wound
		tsunteki (C) 
	
macho
	male, masculine
		machu(h) (SD) 
	
macho, mula
	mule
		machi:tuh (C) 

machorral (bosque con vegetacion enredada y revuelta) 
	thicket (?) (thick, dense and cluttered forest) 
		machorra(h) (SD) 

machucar
	to smash, to mash
		chahchakwa:ni (SD) "machucar, picar"
		ma:tilua (SD) 
		xahxakwalua (SD) "machucarlos"
		xakwalua (SD) "machucar, pelear (perros)" 
		tatsunchalua (C) 
		taxakwalua (SD) "machucar (algo)" 
		tsunchalua (C) "machucar (algo)"

madera, arbol, palo
	wood, tree      
		ku-, ku:-, kuh- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas)
		kwawi-t (C, SD) "madera, arbol, palo, lena"

madrastra
	stepmother
		magrastra(h) (SD) 

madre
	mother
		na:n (C, SD) 

madre cacao, madre de cacao
	tree sp. ("mother of cacao")
		iyahkwawi-t (C) 

madrina
	godmother
		magrina(h) (SD) 

madrugada
	early morning
		ka tatwi (C) "en la madrugada"
		peynayuk (SD) "de la madrugada, todavia esta  temprano" 
		tapu:ya:wa (C) "madrugada, temprano, de dia, manana" 
		tapu:yawa (SD) "madrugada, temprano, de dia, manana"

madurar, poner a madurar
	to ripen, to cause to ripen
		ukxitia (C, SD) 

madurarse, estar cocido
	to ripen, to be cooked
		uksi (C, SD) 

maduro, cocido
	ripe, cooked
		uksik (C, SD) 

maestra
	teacher
		maxtra(h) (SD) 
maestro 
	master
		maxtru(h) (SD) 

maguey, pita (mecate)
	century plant, string/cord
		ich-ti (C, SD) 

maiz
	maize, corn
		sin-ti (C, SD) "maiz, mazorca" 
		tawiyal (C, SD) "maiz (desgranado)"

maiz bien cocido y peladito
	well-made nixtamal/well-cooked and skinned corn 
		pixkik (SD) 

maiz negrito
	small black corn (fungused corn ?)
		puxa:wak (SD) 

mal de ojo (dar), ojear
	to give the evil eye
		i:xkukulita (C) "dar el mal de ojo, ojear"

mal espiritu, "el coco"
	evil spirit, "boogyman"
		-kuhkul (C, SD) 

malacate (huso)
	spindle
		malaka-t (C, SD) 

maldecir
	to curse
		chiwa maldiktar (SD) 

maleta, tanate
	traveling bag, pack, bundle 
		-ta:nah (C, SD) 

malo
	bad
		ma:luh (C, SD) 

malo, feo, no sirve
	bad, ugly, no good
		tesu ye:k (SD) 

malvado
	evil, bad
		ma:luh (SD) 

mamar
	to nurse
		chi:chi (C) (t.v.) 
		chi:chi: (SD) (i.v., t.v.)

mamaso (masa de tortilla deshecha y molida con alguaxte; tortilla de esta masa; cualquier cosa torcida y amontonada)
	a kind of dough made from crumbed tortillas and pumpkin seeds, a tortilla made of this 	dough, anything twisted and piled up 
		mahma:tsu (C, SD) 

mamey
	mamey fruit (zapote sp.)
		ma:me (C) 
		ma:me:h (SD) 

manantial, donde nace el agua pring
		pu:ni a:t (SD) 

manco, cuto de la mano
	one-armed, one-handed (person with one hand or arm missing)
		ma:kutu (C, SD) 
mandadero, mensajero
	messenger
		mandaderu(h) (SD) 

mandar, enviar (cosas)
	to send
		tuktia (C, SD) 

mandil, delantal 
	apron
		mandil (SD) 

manga 
	sleeve
		mangah (SD) 

mango
	mango
		manguh (C, SD) 

mano
	hand
		mah-, ma:- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas)
		-mey (C, SD) 
		-may (Comazagua, Teotepeque)

la mano (apreton de manos)
	handshake
		ketal (SD) 

mano derecha
	right hand
		-ma:yehkan (C) 

mano de piedra de moler (de metate)
	pestle, hand-stone for grinding on metate (quern)
		i-mey meta-t (C) 

manso
	tame
		mansuh (SD) 

mantel, servilleta (tela para tortillas)
	napkin or small cloth for tortillas
		tamalkwa:ch(-ti) (SD) 

mantener, dar comida
	to make food for, to take care of
		tekipanua (C, SD) 

manune (arbol)
	tree sp.
		wahkalmalu:ni (C) 

manzana de Adan
	Adam's apple
		-buchi (C) 
		mansana(h) (SD) 
		-weweruh-yu (SD) 

manzanilla
	camomile
		mansaniya(h) (SD) 

manana
	tomorrow
		mu:sta (C, SD) 
		mu:stayuk (C, SD) "hasta manana"

mapache
	raccoon
		ma:pach-in (C, SD) 

maguiligua, maquilisgua, maquiligue (arbol) 
	tree sp.
		ma:kwiliswa-t (C) 
		ma(:)kwiliswa-t (SD) 

mar
	sea, ocean
		a:la:ma:l (C, SD) 
		a:la:ma:r (C) 

marchitarse
	to wither
		mihmiki (C, SD) 
		tu:nalmiki (SD) 
		wahwa:ki (SD) 

marchito
	withered
		marchitu(h) (SD) 
marearse, atarantarse
	to be(come)/get dizzy, faint 
		i:xpuya:wi (C) 
		tsuni:xpuya:wi (C) 

mareo, mareado
	dizziness
		mare(y)o(h) (SD) 

marido, esposo
	husband
		-xu:leh-yu (C, SD) 

mariposa; apagacandela (mariposa nocturna) 
	butterfly; moth
		pa:pa:lu:-t (C) 
		pa:pa:lu-t (SD) 

maroma, columpio
	swing
		ku:pa:wichi (C) 

marrana, tunca, puerca 
	sow (female pig) 
		siwa:kuyame-t (SD) 

marrana con su cria, tunca parida 
	sow with piglets
		chachapal (SD) 

marrano, tunco, puerco
	pig, swine
		kuyame-t (C, SD) 

marrano macho, tunco 
	boar (male pig) 
		kupis (SD) 
mas
	furthermore, moreover, in addition, more than
		 mas (C, SD) (conj.)

mas tarde, despues
	later
		xa:n (C) 

masa
	dough, dough
		tix-ti (C, SD) 

masacuate (boa)
	boa constrictor   
		masa:ku(:)wa-t (C) 
		masa:ku:wa-t (SD) 

mascara
	mask
		i:xma:skrah (C) 
		ma:skrah (C, SD) "mascara (para bailes)"

mastate, maxtate (cenidor)
	loncloth, breechclout
		maxta-t (C, SD) 

masticar
	to chew
		chahchankwa (SD) 
		chunkwahkwa (C) 

mata
	stock, stem, plant 
		-ku:yu (C, SD) 
		-matah (SD) 

matalin (bejuquito) 
	small vine sp. 
		ma:talin (C, SD) 

matar, matarse
	to kill, to commit suicide 
		miktia (C, SD) "matar" 
		mu-miktia (SD) "matarse, suicidarse"

matasano
	tree sp. 
		na:watsa (C) 
		na:watsapu-t (SD) 

matate (red)
	net, net bag
		ma:ta-t (C, SD) 

materia, pus
	pus
te:mal (C, SD) 

matraca 
	matraca, wooden rattle 
		matraka (C, SD)

matriz, chinaste, ovario
	womb, ovary, egg in chicken 
		xina:ch (C, SD) 

maxtate, mastate (cenidor) 
	loincloth, breechclout 
		maxta-t (C, SD) 
		
mayor, primero
	main, first
		achtu (SD) 

mayordomo (de la cofradia) 
	mayordomo, religious steward in confraternity 
		mayordomo(h) (SD) 

mazamorra (hongo de pie que pica mucho)
	a foot fungus that itches a lot
		yuyumukalis (SD) 

mazorca, maiz
	ear of corn, corn
		sin-ti (C, SD) 

meado, orina
	urine
		xi:x-ti (SD) 

mecapal
	tumpline
		mekapal (C, SD) 

mecasala (culebra)
	snake sp.
		xu:chimekasala (C) 

mecate, pita
	string, cord
		ich-ti (C, SD)  "mecate, pita, cuerda, maguey"
		meka-t (C, SD) "mecate, bejuco, pita"

mecer, mecerse
	to swing
		chayuntia (SD) (t.v., r.v.) "mecer, columpiar, mecerse, columpiarse"      

media luna
	half moon
		tahku me:ts-ti (C) 

medianoche
	midnight
		tahkuyuwal (C) 

medicina, remedio
	medicine, remedy
		pah-ti (C) 
		remedyu(h) (SD) 

medico, doctor, curandero, enfermero
	doctor, curer, nurse 
		tapahtiya, tapahtiyani (C) 

medida
	measurement, measure
		medidah (SD) 

medidor (lombriz)
	inch worm
		kwilin medidor (SD) 

medio (en), entre
	in the middle, between, among
		-tahku (C, SD) 
		-tsa:lan (C, SD) tatahku (C) 

mediodia, buen tiempo (?) 
	noon, in good time (?) 
		welo:rah (C) 

medir, pesar
	to measure, to weigh
		tamachiwa (C, SD) 

mejilla, cachete
	cheek
		-kamak (C, SD) 

mejillas rojas
	red cheeks 
		kamachi:ltik (SD) 

mejorarse, sanarse
	to get better, to recover, to improve
		ye:ktiya (SD) 

memela (algo largo y oval, una clase de tortilla larga y ovala) 
	long, oval-shaped thing;  a kind of tortilla which is long  and oval)
		mehmela (C) 
		memela (SD) 

menear, menearse
	to stir, to move
		kekelutsa (C) (t.v., r.v.) "menear(se), mover(se), aflojar(se)" 
		keke:lutsa (SD) (t.v., r.v.) "menear(se), mover(se), aflojar(se)"
		ne:lua (C, SD) "menear"
		tane:lua (C) "menear (algo), estar meneando" 
		tsehtselua (SD) "menear, sacudir, zarandear"
		uli:ni (C) "menearse, moverse"
		u:lini (SD) "menearse, moverse" 
		uli:nia (C) (t.v., r.v.) "menear(se)" 
		uhu:lini (SD) "menearse, moverse, apurarse" 
		u:lintia (SD) "menear"
		tau:lintia (SD) "menear (algo), estar meneando"

mensajero, mandadero
	messenger
		mandaderu(h) (SD) 

mentir
	to lie (prevaricate)
		-chiwa mentir (SD) 
		xihxi:kua (C, SD) "mentir, enganar"

mentira
	lie, falshood
		mentirah (SD) 
		sanka, sa:nka (C) 

menton, quijada, barbilla
	jaw, chin
		-te:ntsi:ka-w (C, SD) 
mercado
	market
		merkadoh (SD) 

mermar
	to reduce, to decrease, to take out a little
		kaxa:wa (C) "mermar, rebajar, quitar/vaciar un poco" 
		ka:xawa (SD) "mermar, rebajar, quitar/vaciar un poco" 
		taka:xawa (SD) "mermar (algo)"

mes
	month
		me:s (C) 

mesa
	table
		me:sah (C, SD) 

metate, piedra de moler
	metate, quern
		meta-t (C, SD) 

meter
	to i;nsert, to stick/put in
		i:xtu:ka (C, SD) 
		kalaktia (C, SD) "meter, dentrar"

meter en el agua, hundir
	to put in water, to sink, to immerse 
		a:pachua (C, SD) 

mezclado, revuelto, mixto
	mixed
		rebwelto(h), rewelto(h) (SD) 

mezquino, verruga 
	wart
		chipin (SD) 

"mico" (brujo, transformador) 
	witch, transformer, sorcerer 
		mi:ku (C, SD) 
		miedo (tener)

to be afraid, to be frightened 
	mahmawi (C, SD) "tener miedo"
miel (de colmena)
	honey
		neka:yu-t (C) 

migaja
	crumb
		mumuxu (SD) 
		-pu:su:l (C) "migaja, mumujo"

miguero, con migajas
	crumby
		pu:su:lnah (C)

mil
	thousand
		mi:l (C) 

milagro
	miracle
		poder (SD) 
		-chiwa poder (SD) "hacer un milagro"

milpa
	milpa, cornfield
		mi:l (C, SD) 

milpa de apante, tunalmil (milpa de verano) 
	summer cornfield, corn planted in summer (?) 
		tu:nal-mi:l (SD) 

mina de lena
	source of firewood
		mi:nah (SD) 

mirar
	to look
		chiya (C, SD) 
		tachiya (C, SD) "estar mirando, esperando"

mirasol
	sunflower
		chichikakaw (SD) 

miron, tenguereche (lagartija)
	lizard sp. ("starer")
		tachani (C) 
misa
	Mass
		mi:sah (C, SD) 

mismo, justamente, solo 
	same, just, only
		-san (C, SD) 

mistilicuco (pajaro)
	bird sp.
		mistikili (C) 

mitad; en medio, entre
	half; in the middle, between, among
		tahku (C, SD) 

moco
	mucus, snot
		-yakatsul (C, SD) 

moho, mojo
	mold, mildew
		moho (SD) 

mojar, mojarse
	to wet, to dampen, to get wet 
		ahwi (C, SD) "mojarse" 
		ahwilia (C) "mojar" 
		ate(:)kia (C) "mojar(se), regar"
		a:tepe:wa (C, SD) "mojar, echarle mucha agua" 
		tahwi:lia (C) "mojar (algo)"

mojarse la cabeza
	to wet one's head
		mu-tsunahwilia (C, SD) 

mojon (lindero)
	boundary marker 
		mohonero(h) (SD) 

moler
	to grind (corn)
		tisi (C, SD) 

moler (p. ej., cafe, arroz, cosas ajenas en la masa)
	to grind (e.g., rice, coffee, foreign things in the corndough)
		tsuntisi (SD) 

moler mucho, repasar, moler muy fino (la masa)
	to grind very fine, to grind much
		kwe:chua (C) 
		takwe:chua (SD) "moler (algo) muy fino, repasar"

molestar, molestarse, estar apenado, sofocar, saporar(se) 
	to be bothered, vexed, harrassed, troubled
		kakasua (C) 

molido muy fino (la masa), cuexte
	finely ground
		kwechtik (C) 

molinillo
	chocolate beater
		mu:rinchi (SD) 
		murinilyuh (C) 

molote, tigrillo causel
	feline sp. (small, spotted)
		muluktsin (C) 

molleja
	gizzard
		-tsinte-w (C, SD) 

monte, bosque (tierra no rozada, selva, jungla) 
	"bush", woods, forest (uncleared land) 
		kohtan (SD) 
		kuhtan (C) 

montecitos (que sacan las taltusas, zompopos, etc.) 
	molehill, anthill
		ta:lputs (C) 
		ta(:)lpu(:)ts (SD) 

mono
	monkey
		mono(h) (SD) 

mora 
	berry, raspberry, blackberry
		mora(h) (SD) 

morado
	purple
		morado(h) (SD) 

morder
	to bite
		tankwa (C, SD) 
		tatankwa (SD) "morder (algo), estar mordiendo"

moreno, negro
	black
		ku:ti:ltik (C) 

morro, guacal
	gourd
		chi:chiwah (C) 
		chi:chiwal (C) 
		wahkal (C, SD) "morro, guacal (jicara)" 
		xu:lun (SD) "morro, jicara, julon, cascaron" 

mosca, mosquito
	fly, gnat
		mu:yu-t (SD) 

mosca grande; queresa
	fly; maggot
		ihkwich (SD)

mosquear
	to swat flies
		mu-ahkape:wia (C) "mosquear, soplarse (abanicarse)"
		mu:mu:yupe:wia (C, SD) "mosquear"

mosquito
	gnat
		mu:yu:-t (C) 
		mu:yu-t (SD) 
		sayulin (SD) 

mosquito muy chiquito 
	very small gnat 
		xukukmu:yu-t (SD) 

mostrar, ensenar
	to show
		ilwitia (C, SD) 
motate, mutate, muta 
	food of pineapple fried with eggs and tomatoes
		mu:tah (C, SD) 

mover, moverse, menear, menearse
	to move
		kekelutsa (C) (t.v., r.v.) "mover(se), menear(se)" 
		keke:lutsa (SD) "mover(se), menear(se), aflojar(se)"
		uhu:lini (SD) "moverse, menearse, apurarse" 
		uli:ni (C) "moverse, menearse"
		u:lini (SD) "moverse, menearse"

mozo
	worker, servant, fellow
		mo(:)su(h) (SD) 

mozote, mosote (clase de cardo (?)) 
	burr, cuckle burr
		mu:su-t (C, SD) 

muchacha
	girl
		siwa:pil (C, SD) 

muchacho, sipote
	boy
		pi:pil (C, SD) 
		piltsin (C, SD) 

muchacho inutil, lerdo 
	useless boy, dummy 
		i:xmehme:le (C) 

mucho, muchos, bastante 
	much, many, a lot 
		miyak (C, SD) 
		suhsul (SD) "mucho, bastante"
		punyuh (SD) "muchos, puno, grupo grande"

mudo
	dumb, mute
		tesu weli taketsa (C, SD) 

muela cordial (cordal)

wisdom tooth   
		-tankwich (SD) 

muerto, cadaver
	dead person, cadaver 
		mikini (C) 

mujer
	woman
		siwa:-t (C, SD) 

mujer extranjera 
	foreign woman
		turkah (SD) 

mujer sin formalidad (mujer promiscua) 
	promiscuous woman, prostitute (?) 
		tsinkekex (SD) 

mula
	mule
		mu:lah (C, SD) 
		machi:tuh (C) "mula, macho"

mulquite (mazorcas no crecidas)
	small, not fully grown ear of corn
		mulki:-t (C) 
		mulki-t (SD) 

mumujo, migaja
	crumb
		-pu:su:l (C) 

mundo
	world
		mundu(h) (SD) 

municipio
	municipality, city, town center 
		munisipiyu(h) (SD) 

muneca (de la mano)
	wrist
		i-kechku:yu -mey (C, SD) 

murcielago
	bat
		tsina:kan (C, SD) 

muro, cemento, tepante (muro de piedras) 
	wall, rock wall
		tepan-ti (SD) 

muruxo, colocho (crespo, rizado)
	curly
		tsunkulu:chuh (C) 

musgo
	moss
		a:mux (C, SD) 

muslo, pierna
	thigh, leg
		-metsku:yu (C, SD) 

muta, mutate, motate
	food of pineapple fried with eggs and tomatoes 
		mu:tah (C, SD) 

muy
	very
		tiki (C) 

N
	
nacatamal (tamal de carne)
	meat tamale
		nakatamal (C, SD) 
	
nacer
	to be born
		ne:si (SD) "nacer, aparecerse" 
		(w)alta:kati (C) "nacer, empezar a crecer"
	
nacido, grano (barro)
	pimple, boil
		pusa (C, SD) 
		taxwi:s (C) 
	
nada
	nothing
		su datka (C) 
		te: datka (C) 
		tesu datka (C) 

nada, de nada, no hay de que 
	it's nothing, your welcome 
		te: datka (SD) 
		tesu datka (C) 
	
nadie
	nobody
		su a:kah (C) "nadie, ninguno" 
		tesu a:kah (SD) "nadie"

nagua, enagua, refajo, falda
	skirt
		kweya-t (SD) 
		kweyi-t (C) 

nahuate, pipil (lengua)
	Pipil
		na:wa-t (C, SD) 

Nahuizalco (lugar)
	Nahuizalco (place name) 
		na:wisalku (C, SD) 
	
nalga
	buttocks
		tsin (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas) 
		'nalga, base' tsinkamak (SD) 
		-tsintamal (C) 

nalga (sin), sin nalga 
	flat-rumped, flat buttocks 
		tsinka:lach (C) "sin nalga" 
		tsinmahma:lach (SD) "sin nalga"

nalgon, nalgona
	person with large buttocks 
		kulon, kulona(h) (SD) 
		tsintuma:wak (SD) 
		tsinnanats (C) "nalgona"

Nanahuatzin, "el chimpe" (el sabio, personaje mitologico) 
	Nanahuatzin  (mythological personage), "the youngest son" (see text N, ch.7)
		na:na:watsin (C) 

nance, nanche
	fruit sp., nance 
		na:n (SD) na:ntsin (C) 

naranja 
	orange
		lala (C, SD) 

narices
	nostil(s)
		-bentanah -yak (SD)   
		i-bentanah nu-yak (SD) "mis narices"

nariz
	nose
		-yak (C, SD) 
		yaka- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas)

nauseas (tener)
	to be/feel nauseaous
		el-mu-yawa (C, SD) 

neblinado, aneblinado
	foggy
		mixte:ntuk (C) 

necesitar
	to need
		mu-neki (C, SD) 

negrearse, ennegrecerse, hacerse negro
	to turn black, to become black, to get black 
		ku:ti:ltiya (C) 
		ti:ltiya (SD) 

negro
	black
		kuti:ltik (SD) 
		ku:ti:ltik (C) "negro, moreno"
		ti:ltik (SD) 

nejayote, nijayote, cernada (agua de nixtamal)
	nixtamal water, the water in which corn is washed which has the dirty remains
		nexa:yu-t (C, SD) 

nestamal, nixtamal, nistamal
	nixtamal, leached corn (stage in the preparation of corn dough where  kernels are soaked 	in water with lye or ash to soften the skins)
		nextamal (C, SD) 

nexno (sucio de ceniza, polvo, enpolvado) 
	dusty
		nexnah (SD) 

nido
	nest
		-ni:du(h) (SD) 
		-tapahsul (C) 
		xu:mul (SD) "nido (de gallina)"

"nido" (el bolado o huevo que le ponen a la gallina para que ponga) 
	"nest egg" (egg or ball put in the nest to get a chicken  to lay)
		-pa:wil (SD) 
		tapa:wil (C) 

nieta, nieto
	grandchild
		-ixwiyu (C, SD) 

nigua
	chigger (small flea) 
		tsu:lah (SD) 
		tsu:lan (C) 

ninguno, nadie
	no one, nobody
		su a:kah (C) 

nina! (termino para hablar a una nina de ocho anos en adelante) 
	girl! (term of address for a girl eight years and older) 
		chiwaw (SD) 

ninera
	nanny, babysitter   
		kune:piya (SD) (n.)

nino! (termino para hablar a ninos de cinco anos en adelante) 
	boy! (term of address for boys of five years and older) 
		chu:leh (C) 
		no:y (SD) 

nino
	child
		kune:-t (C, SD) "nino, criatura, tierno (bebe)"

nino, muchacho, sipote
	boy
		pi:pil (SD) 

nino que crecio, largo
	a child that has grown; long
		weyak (SD) 

nino que empieza a andar, a parar
	child that is beginning to walk or to stand
		su:lin (C) 

nino tierno, tiernito, criatura (bebe)
	baby, infant
		xu:lu-t (C, SD) 

nispero (fruta, arbol)
	fruit sp., tree sp. 
		mu:yutsa (C) 
		mu:yutsapu-t (SD) 

nixpulo (conserva de miel y de maiz molido y tostado)
	a preserve or candy made of toasted corn and honey
		ku:biyuh (C) 

nixtamal, nestamal, nistamal
	nixtamal, leached corn (a stage in the preparation of corn dough where kernels are soaked 	in ash or lye to soften the skins)
		nextamal (C, SD) 

no
	no
		inte (Ataco, Tacuba)
		te: (C, SD) 
		tesu (C, SD) 

no es asi
	it's not so, it's not like that
		tesu kiya (C) 

no hay
	there is not, there are not
		su kanah (C) 
		tesu kanah (C, SD) 

no hay de que, de nada
	it's nothing, you're welcome
		te: datka (SD) 
		tesu datka (C) 

no parejo, nudoso, irregular 
	uneven, irregular, knotty
		tahtakalnah (C) 
		tahta:kalnah (SD) 

no sirve
	no good, bad
		te: ye:k (C) 
		tesu ye:k (SD) "no sirve, chueco"

noche (de)
	at night
		ka tayuwa (SD) "de noche, en la noche"
		tayuwa (C, SD) "noche, de noche"

nodriza, mujer que da cria al bebe de otra, ama de leche 
	wet nurse
		chichiwah (SD) 

nombrar
	to name
		tu:keytia (C) 

nombre
	name
		tu:kay (SD) 
		-tu:key (C) 

norte, viento, aire
	wind
		eheka-t (C, SD) 

norte (direccion), arriba 
	north, up, above
		kahkuwik (SD) 

nosotros
	we
		tehemet (C, SD) 

novia, nuera
	bride, girlfriend, daughter-in-law 
		siwa:mu:n-ti (C, SD) 

novio, yerno
	groom, boyfriend, son-in-law 
		mu:n-ti (C, SD) 

nublado y oscuro (oscuro por las nubes) 
	overcast, dark (from clouds) 
		tanexnah (C) 

nudillo, gonce
	knuckle, joint, hinge
		-gonsah (SD) 

nudo
	knot
		i:xtsukul (C) 
		-i:xtsukul-yu (SD) 
		nudo(h) (SD) 
		pusunkal (SD) 

nudoso, irregular, no parejo 
	knotty, irregular, uneven 
		tahtakalnah (C) 
		tahta:kalnah (SD) 

nuera, novia 
	daughter-in-law, bride, girlfriend 
		siwa:mu:n-ti (C, SD) 

Nuestro Senor, Jesucristo
	Our Lord, Jesus Christ 
		tutahtsin (C) 

nuevo 
	new
		yankwik (C, SD) 

nunca
	never
		te: ke:man (C) 
		tesu ke:man (SD) 

O
o
	or
		o (SD) 
	
obedecer
	to obey
		ta:kamati (C, SD) 
	
obsidiana
	obsidian, worked obsidian
		achitah (SD) 
	
ocotal 
	pine grove, stand of pines 
		ukutal (C) 
	
ocote
	pine, pine kindling, pine torch 
		uku-t (C) 
		okot (C) 

ocupar la mujer (tener relaciones sexuales con una mujer)
	to occupy a woman (to have sexual relations with a woman) 
		-chiwa okupar (SD) 
	
odiar, envidiar
	to hate, to envy
		ihiya (C) 

ofender, insultar
	to offend, to insult 
		ihilwia (C) 
	
oficio
	office, position, charge, appointment, post 
		palestrah (C) "oficio, puesto, sitio" 
		teki-t (C, SD) "trabajo, oficio"
	
ofrenda
	offering
		limosna(h) (SD) 
	
oido, oreja
	ear
		-nakas (C, SD) 
oir 
	to ;hear
		ka:ki (C) 
		kaki (SD) 
		taka:ki "oir (algo), escuchar, estar escuchando"
	
oirse ruidos (de distancia)
	for noises to be heard (at a distance) 
		titikwi:ka (SD) 

ojala
	oh that, would that, may it be that
		hwa:la (SD) 
		ma: (C, SD) "ojala que, si, que" 
		maka (SD) "ojala que, si, que"

ojear, dar el mal de ojo
	to give the evil eye
		i:xkukulita (C) 

ojo
	eye
		i:x (C, SD) 

oler
	to smell
		ahnekua (SD) (t.v.) "oler"
		ihnekwi (C) "oler"

oler bien, tener buen olor
	to smell good, to have a good aroma/smell
		puputu:ka (SD) 

olor
	smell
		-ihiyu (C, SD) "olor, aliento, ijiyo" 
		puputuka (C) "olor, aroma, buen olor"

olor de quemado, olor de chamuscado
	burnt smell, singed smell, smell of something burned 
		su:hyak (SD) 
		tsu:hyak (C) 

oloroco, loroco (verdura) 
	vine sp. (edible) 
		masa:kili-t (C, SD) 
olote
	corncob (without kernels) 
		ulu-t (C, SD) 

olvidar(se)
	to forget   
		elka:wa (C) 
		elka(:)wa (SD) 

olla
	(clay) pot
		ku:mi-t (C, SD) 

ombligo
	navel, belly button 
		-tsumpi (SD) 
		-xi:k (C, SD) 

opaco, nublado 
	overcast, dark 
		yuwaki (SD) 

oprimir, apachar, aplastar
	to press, to hold down, to flatten 
		ku:pachua (C, SD) 
		pachua (SD) 
		taku:pachua (C) "apachar (algo)"
		tapachua (C) "apachar (algo)"

oprimirse, apacharse, estar apachandose 
	to be pressed, held down 
		mu-pahpachua (C) 

orar
	to pray
		-chiwa orar (SD) 

ordenar, torcer (ropa mojada)
	to milk, to twist/squeeze (wet clothes)
		patska (C, SD) 

oreja, oido
	ear
		-nakas (C, SD) 

organo, pitajaya (pitahaya)
	cactus sp. (organ cactus ?)
		i:xwahlaka (SD) 

orilla
	edge
		ori:yah (SD) 
		tate:mpan (C, SD) "a la orilla" 
		-te:mpan (C) "orilla, borde" 
		-te:n (C, SD) "orilla, boca"

orilla del rio
	edge/bank of the river
		te:n a:t (C) 

orilla de un alzadero, orilla del tapesco donde guardan cosas 
	the edge of a storage place/rack/bin   
		te:ntsatsas (C) 

orina
	urine
		a:xi:x (C) 
		xi:x-ti (SD) 

orinar, mear
	to urinate
		mu-xi:xa (C, SD) 

oro
	gold
		oroh (C, SD) 
		tumin "oro, plata, plomo, dinero"

oscurecerse
	to get dark
		taku:miya (C) 

oscuridad, oscuro
	dark, darkness
		ku(:)nyuwa (SD) 
		taku:mi (C) "oscuridad"

oscuro, sombra, debajo del palo (arbol) 
	shaded, shade, under a tree
		ku:yuwa (SD) 

oscuro (estar), estar oscuro
	to be dark
		takunyuwa (SD) 

oscuro de nubes (nublado y oscuro) 
	overcast, dark (from clouds) 
		tanexnah (C) 

oso colmenero
	anteater
		nektsin (C) 

Ostucal (lugar, cueva)
	Ostucal (place name, cave name)
		ustu:kal (C) 

otra vez
	again
		se:mpa (SD) 
		se-pa (C) 
		se-paya (C)

otro
	other, another
		se:yuk (C, SD) 
		uk-se: (Ataco) 
		neyuk (SD) 

otro lado
	the other side, opposite bank
		se:ntapal (C) 

otro lado del rio
	the other side/bank of the river 
		se:ntapal (SD) 
	
ovario, matriz, chinaste
	ovary, womb, egg inside of a chicken 
		xina:ch (C) 
		-xina:ch (SD) 
					
P

pacuill, pajuil, guara (pajaro)
	bird sp.
		tekechul (C) 
	
pacha (biberon)
	baby bottle
		chichi:wal (SD) 
	
padrastro
	stepfather
		pagrastro(h) (SD) 
	
padre
	father
		tatah (SD) 
		-te:ku (C, SD) 

padre, cura, sacerdote 
	Father, priest
		pa:leh (C, SD) 
	
Padre, Dios
	God the Father, God 
		tute:ku (C) 
	
pagar
	to pay
		taxta:wa (SD) 
		taxta:wia (C) 
	
pago, sueldo
	pay, salary
		pa:guh (C, SD) 

paja (para casa), zacate
	straw (for thatch), grass 
		saka-t (C, SD) 
	
pajaro
	bird
		tu:tu-t (SD) 
		wi:lu:-t (C) 

pajaro bobo, sinsonte 
	bobo bird sp.
		i:xte:mblo:r (C) 

pajaro caballero, pucuyo, pajaro leon, pijuyo, tijul 
	bird sp.
		pukuyuh (C, SD) 

pajaro carpintero
	woodpecker
		tu:tut karpintero(h) (SD) 
		tsunchekek (C) 

pajaro (una clase de)
	bird sp.
		kwachichi:l (SD) 
		xuhxul (SD) 

pajaro (un pajaro verde)
	bird sp.
		yapuk (Ataco)

pajero, parlanchin
	chatterbox, one who speaks rapidly, one who stretches the truth
		te:nsasal (SD) 

pajuil, pacuil, guara (pajaro)
	bird sp.
		tekechul (C) 

pala, paleta, cuchara de madera
	shovel, large wooden spoon, ladle
		palah (SD) 

palabra
	word
		palabra(h), palawra(h) (SD) 

palacio
	palace
		palasiu(h), palasio(h) (SD) 

palangana
	washbowl, water dish
		palangana(h) (SD) 

paleta, cuchara de madera 
	ladle, large wooden spoon 
		palah (SD) 
		paletah (C, SD) 

palido
	pale
		a:istak (C, SD) 
		pilichnah (SD) 
		a:tultik (C) "palido, descolorido (de gente)" 
		a:puhpu (C, SD) "palido, puspo (de gente)"

palma (de la mano)
	palm (of hand)
		-ma:taxkal (C, SD) 

palma, palmera
	palm (tree)
		palmah (C, SD) 

palo, arbol, madera
	tree, wood
		ku-, ku:-, kuh- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas) 
		kwawi-t (C, SD) 

palo de cabra, pie de cabra
	tree sp. ("goat's foot" tree)
		chuhchu:wits (C) 

palo de cereza (en la montana)
	wild cherry tree (?)
		ta:ltumakwawi-t (C) 

palo de hule
	rubber tree
		uhli kwawi-t (C) 

palo de tacuazin, huele-de-noche 
	tree sp. ("opossum" tree) 
		takwatsin kwawi-t (SD) 

palo de zorrillo
	tree sp. ("skunk" tree) 
		mutuhtsin (C) 

palo guaje
	tree sp.
		wa:xin (C) 

palo jabillo, pataxte (arbol) 
	tree sp. (wild cacao ?) 
		ku:patach (C) 

palo jiote
	tree sp. ("peeling-skin" tree) 
		ixi:nyu kwaw-t, xi:nyu-kwawi-t (C) 
		palosanto (SD) 

palo pito
	tree sp.
		ku:lekeme-t (SD) 
		le:keme-t (C) 

palo podrido
	rotten tree, rotten wood 
		ku:pala (C) 

paloma
	dove, pigeon
		paloma(h) (SD) 

paloma azul, paloma morada
	dove sp. ("blue/purple" dove)
		muhkusuku (C) 

paloma con alas blancas
	dove sp. (with white wings) 
		istakehtapal (C) 

paloma del suelo
	dove sp. ("ground" dove)
		wistumun (C) 

paloma grande de monte
	dove sp. (large dove of the forest)
		wi:lu-t (SD) 

palpitar, el golpe (del corazon) 
	heartbeat, throb
		pohpok-ti (SD) 
		yultihtika (C) 

paludismo 
	malaria
		sesek-tutu:nik (SD) 

pan
	bread
		pan (C, SD) 

panal (de avispa)
	wasp's nest
		mimiya:wa-t (C, SD) 

pan-caliente (un bejuco)
	vine sp. ("hot-bread" vine) 
		pankali(y)ente(h) (SD) 

pandear, pandearse
	to bend, to curve
		kwe:liwi (C, SD) "pandearse" 
		kwe:lua (SD) "pandear, doblar" 
		mu-kwehkwe:lua (C) "pandearse, culebrear(se)" 
		mu-kwe:lua (SD) "pandearse"
		nekwilua (SD) (t.v., r.v.) "pandear(se), ladear(se), hacer(se) al lado"

pando
	bent, curved
		kwe:lnah (C) 
		kwe(:)lnah (SD) 

pantalon
	pants, trousers
		sala (C, SD) 

pantano
	swamp
		pantano(h) (SD) 
		ta:la:pu:ni (C) "pantano, charco, chaguite"

pante, pantis, trinchera (medida de lena picada, amontonada) 
	a measure of chopped and stacked firewood
		ku:pa:n-ti (C) 
		pa:n-ti (SD) 
		tawipan-ti (SD) 
		trinchera(h) (SD) 

pantorrilla
	calf of leg
		-ku:ts (SD) 

panzon
	pot-bellied, big belly 
		ihtibo:n (C) 

pano, rebozo
	kerchief, scarf
		pa:yuh (C) 
		-kwahtsin (SD) "pano (rebozo blanco, para cubrise la mujer)"

pano viejo
	old cloth, rag
		kwa:chpala (C, SD) 

papa
	potato
		pa:pah (SD) 

papalote, barrilete (cometa)
	kite
		pa:pa:lu-t (SD) 

papaya
	papaya
		papaya (SD) 

papel, libro
	paper, book
		a:ma-t (C, SD) 

papelillo (arbol)
	tree sp. ("little paper" tree) 
		papeliyu(h) (SD) 

papera
	mumps
		papera(h) (SD) 

para, para que
	for, in order to, so that 
		pal (C, SD)  (conj.)

parado
	standing
		ihkatuk (C, SD) 

parado, erecto (obsceno) 
	standing, erect (obscene) 
		kutili:ntuk (SD) (obsceno)

paralitico
	cripple, paralytic
		paralitiko (SD) 

parar, pararse, levantar, levantarse
	to stand, to get up, to rise, to raise, to lift
		ketsa (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.)

parar (de punta, de un extremo)
	to stand on end
		tsinketsa (C, SD) 

pararse en puntillas para alcanzar algo (empinarse), andar a tientas 
	to stand on tiptoes to reach something
		mu-tsihkwilua (SD) 

pared
	wall
		tapepechu:l (C) 
		tapepechul (SD) 

parir
	to bear, to give birth to 
		pu:ni (SD) (i.v.) 
		pu:nia (C) (t.v.) 
		tapu:nia (C) "parir (de animales)"

parlanchin, pajero
	chatterbox, someone who talks rapidly, someone who stretches the truth
		te:nsasal (SD) 

parpado
	eyelash
		-i:xewayu (SD) 

parque 
	park
		parke(h) (SD) 

participar, tomar parte
	to participate, to take part
		maka parte(h) (SD) 

partir, cortar (con cuchillo, machete)
	to cut in two, to cut (with a knife, machete)
		kutu:na (SD) 

pasado manana
	day after tomorrow
		wi:pta (C, SD) 

pasado pasado manana (en tres dias)
	in three days
		i:xta wi:pta (C) 

pasar
	to pass, to cross
		panu (C, SD) (i.v.) "pasar, cruzar" 
		panultia (C, SD) (t.v.) "pasar, traspasar"

paseador
	person who just has a good time
		pa:xa:luwani (C, SD) 

pasear
	to take a walk, to have fun, to visit
		pa:xa:lua (C, SD) 

pasmado, loco
	"nuts", crazy, addled
		tsun-eheka-t (C, SD) 

paso
	step
		pa:suh (SD) 

pastilla
	pill
		pastiyah (SD) 

pastor
	pastor
		pastor (SD) 

pata, pie
	foot
		(i)kxi (C, SD) 

pataxte (cacao inferior) 
	wild cacao (?) 
		ku:patach (C) "pataxte, palo jabillo" 
		pa(:)tach (SD) 

patear
	to kick
		taksa (C, SD) 

paterna, paterno (arbol, fruta)
	tree sp.
		ku:xi (SD) 
		ku:xine (C) 

patinar, resbalarse 
	to skate, to slide 
		xi:pinawi (SD) 

patio de la puerta (parte afuera delante de la puerta) 
	patio or part of yard just before the door
		te:n-kal (C, SD) 

pato
	duck
		patu(h) (C) 
		patux (SD) 

patojo de un pie (renco, cojo) 
	lame in one leg
		metskalapa (C) 

patron, amo
	boss, master
		a:mu(h) (SD) 

peche  (ultimo  hijo  de una madre que esta embarazada o que esta con tiernito que mama)       	youngest child of a mother who is pregnant or who has another nursing infant
		pi:tsu-t (C, SD) 

peche, tierno (de bebe, de maiz)
	tender, immature, infant (of baby, corn)
		tsi:pi-t (C) 

peche, flaco
	skinny, undernourished
		tewa:ktuk (C) 

pecho
	chest
		-elpan (C) 
		-elpets (SD) "pecho, pechuga (de animal)"
		-pe:chuh (SD) "pecho, pechuga"

pechuga
	breast
		elkuhku (C) 
		-elpets (SD) "pechuga, pecho (de animal)"
		-pe:chuh (SD) "pechuga, pecho"

pedacear
	to break into pieces
		mumuxua (C, SD) "pedacear, pozolear" 
		pitsakua (SD) "pedacear, despanicar" 
		tapitsakua (SD) "pedacear (algo), estar quebrando en pedazos"
		tsitsinua (C) 

pedazo
	piece
		takutun (C, SD) 

pedazo de carne (partido en trocitos)
	piece of meat, cut up piece of meat
		setakutun (C) 

pedazo de vidrio (guixte)
	piece of glass
		talumet (SD) 
		lime:tah (C) 
		limetah (SD) 

pedir
	to ask for
		tahtani (C, SD) 

pedo
	fart
ihyal (SD) 
pedrada (piedrazo)
	the cast/throw/hit of a stone/rock
		pedradah (C) 
pedrero (donde hay mucha piedra)
rocky ground, place where there is a lot of stone
		tetal (SD) 
pegajoso
	sticky
		sasa:lik (C) 
		sa(:)salik (SD) 
pegar
	to hit
		chalua (C, SD) "pegar, golpear"
		ku:witeki (SD) "pegar, golpear (con algo), garrotear" 
		su:ma (C, SD) "pegar, pelearse"
		tachalua (C, SD) "pegar (algo), estar golpeando" 
		tasu:ma (C) "estar pegando, peleando(se)"
		tawiteki (C, SD) "pegar, golpear, aporrear (algo)"

pegar en la frente
	to hit in the forehead
		kwatsaya:na (SD) 

pegar (con goma)
	to stick, to glue 
		sa:lua (C, SD) 

pegar el panal en el balsamo (para absorber el liquido)
	to place  a cloth/patch on a scraped place on a balsam tree to absorb its sap
		u:xisa:lua (C)

peinarse, peinar
	to comb
		mu-ahsuma (C) "peinarse (?)"
		tsikwastia (SD) (t.v., r.v.) "peinar(se)"

peine
	comb
		tsi:kuwas (C) 
		tsiku:was (SD) 
pejecaite (pescado)
	fish sp. ("sandal" fish) 
		michin-kak-ti (SD) 

pelar, pelarse
	to skin, to peel
		xi:pe:wa (C) "pelar, descascarar" 
		xi:pewa (SD) "pelar, descascarar" 
		xi:pe:wi (C) "pelarse"
		taxi:pewa (SD) "pelar (algo), descascarar (algo)"

pelarse el nixtamal, pelarse el maiz cocido
	for kernels of cooked corn to lose their skin
		pixki (C) 

pelear(se)
	to fight
		su:ma (C, SD) "pelear(se), pegar"
		tasu:ma (C) "estar peleando, pegar (algo)" 
		taxakwalua (SD) "estar peleando (perros), machucar" 
		xakwalua (SD) "pelear (perros), machucar"

peligroso
	dangerous
		tesahsay (SD) 

pelirrojo
	red-head
		tsunchi:ltik (C) "pelirrojo, rubio"
		tsunxi:lu-t (SD) "pelirrojo, chele, canche (guero)"

pelo
	hair
		tsun- (C, SD) 'pelo, cabeza' (en palabras compuestas) 
		-tsunkal (C, SD) "pelo, cabello"

pelo de animal, pluma
	fur, hair (of animal), feather
		-uhmi-yu (SD) 

pelon, calvo
	bald
		tsunxi:pe (SD) 
		tsunxi:pets (C) 

pelota, bola
	ball
		peluta (C) 

peludo
	hairy
		ku:pachon (C) 
		ku:pahsul (C) 
		pachon (SD) "peludo, cubierto de pelusa"

pelusa
	fuzz
		kamu:sa (SD) "pelusa, algodon de ave" 
		pachon (SD) "peludo, cubierto de pelusa"

pellejo, piel, cascara
	hide, skin, peel, bark
		-e:wayu (C) 

pellizcar
	to pinch
		istiwia (C) 
		itstiwia (SD) 

pena, penado
	trouble, bother(ed)
		-pe:na (C) 

pene
	penis
		chipusti (SD) "pene, chipuste" 
		meka-t (C) "pene, bejuco" 
		tepu:l (SD) 
		wi:lu-t (SD) "pene, paloma grande de monte" 
		xupi:lin (SD) "pene de nino, grillo"

pensar
	to think
		chiwa pensar (SD) 
		i:xkehketsa (C, SD) 

pena, penon, penasco, talapena, talpetate 
	cliff, boulder
		tapeta-t (C, SD) 

penascal (inclinacion con mucha piedra) 
	rocky slope
		tapetasuwal (C) 

pepenance (arbol)
	tree sp.
		ixukumasa:-t, xukumasa:-t (C) 

pepenar, recoger, picotear
	to pick, to peck, to pick up
		pehpena (C, SD) 

pepeto (arbol)
	tree sp.
		a:ku:xi (SD) "pepeto, pepetillo" 
		a:ku:xine (C) "pepeto, pepetillo" 
		pepetu(h) (SD) "pepeto, cojin, cujin"
		pepexte (colchon)

pad, cushion 
	to protect back from loads
		-pechih (C) 
		pehpech (SD) 

pepian, pipian, pepitorio 
	kind of sause
		pipiyan (SD) 

pepino
	cucumber
		pepinu(h) (SD) 

pepita, hueso de fruta 
	pit (stone of fruit) 
		i:x (C, SD) 

pequeno
	small, little
		achi, atsi (C) "pequeno, poco"
		chikitik (SD) 

perder, perderse
	to lose, to get lost
		i:xpulua (SD) (t.v., r.v.) "perder(se)" 
		puliwi (C, SD) "perderse, desaparecerse" 
		pulua (C, SD) "perder"
		tapulua (SD) "perder (algo)"

perdiz
	grouse, partridge (?)
		ixkumun (SD) 
		xuyu:nna (C) 

perdonar
	to forgive
		-chiwa perdonar (SD) 

pereza (tener), ser haragan 
	to be lazy
		tatsiwi (C, SD) 

perico
	parrakeet
		perikuhchin (SD) 
		piriki:tuh (C) 

perla (cuenta)
	bead
		ku:s-ti (C) 
pero
	but
		ma (C) (conj.) "pero, y ahora" 
		pe(:)ro(h) (C) 
		pero, pe:ro(h) (SD) 

perro, chucho
	dog
		pe:lu (C, SD) 

perseguir
	to persecute
		-chiwa sigir (SD) 

persignarse
	to cross oneself
		mu-chiwa persiknar (SD) 
		mu-tiyuchiwa (C) 

persona; cf. gente, hombre 
	person; see people, man

persona del mismo pueblo (coterraneo)
	person from the same town 
		-chanta:ka-w (SD) 
pesado
	heavy
		etek (C, SD) 

pesar, medir
	to weigh, to measure 
		tamachiwa (C, SD) 

pescado, pez 
	fish
		michin (C, SD) 

pescar
	to fish
		-chiwa peskar (SD) 

pescuezo, cuello
	neck
		kech- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas) 
		-kechku:yu (C, SD) 

pestanas, cejas
	eyelashes, eyebrows
		-i:xtsuhtsunyu (C, SD) 
		-tsuhtsun-yu (SD) 

peste
	pest, plague
		pespe(h) (SD) 

petalo de flor, cajuelita 
	petal
		kwahwelah (SD) 

petate, estera
	woven mat
		peta-t (C) 

piafar, rascar
	to paw (horse), to scratch 
		tawawa:na (SD) 
	
piar, llorar
	to peep, to cry
		chu:ka (SD) 

picante, fuerte
	hot, spicy
		chichik (C) "picante, amargo" 
		hwerte(h) (SD) 
		kukuk (C) 
		kukuknah (C) "algo picante"

picar
	to cut up; to sting; to itch 
		chahchakwa:ni (SD) "picar, machucar" 
		tsupina (C, SD) "picar, pullar" 
		yuyumuka (C) "picar, tener picazon, comezon"

picar lena, recoger lena, lenar
	to cut firewood, to get firewood
		kwahkwawi (C, SD) 

picarse (maiz, carne, frijol cuando se llena de gorgojo) 
	to be insect eaten/infested, to have weavels/grubs 
		kwalu: (SD) 
		kwe:chiwi (C) 

picotear
	to peck
		pehpena (C, SD) "picotear, recoger, pepenar" 
		tsupina (SD) "picotear, picar, pullar, inyectar"

pichon (pollo todavia no maduro)
	young chicken, pullet
		puyu(h) (SD) 

pichota (brote)
	bud
		piyuch (SD) 

pie
	foot
		(i)kxi (C, SD) 

pie de cabra, palo de cabra
	tree sp. ("goat's foot" tree) 
		chuhchu:wits (C) 

pie de venado (planta (?))
	plant sp. ("deer's foot")
		tepupu:yu (C) 
piel, pellejo, cascara
	skin, hide, peel, bark 
		-e:wayu (C) 
		-ewayu (SD) 

piedra
	stone, rock
		te- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas)
		te-t (C, SD) 
		tetun-ti (SD) "piedra, cuna (terron (?))"

piedra de afilar
	whetstone
		a:xa:luwas (C, SD) 

piedra de moler (metate) 
	metate, quern
		meta-t (C, SD) 

piedra de rayo (obsidiana) 
	obsidian, worked piece of obsidian 
		achitah (SD) 

piedra de tamagas (colmena)
	kind of beehive
		itew-tamakas (C) 

piedra pomez, tepunas, piedra 
	bofita pumice (stone)
		tepunas (C) 
		tepupusa (C) 

piedritas
	pebbles, small stones 
		tetsitsin (C, SD) 

pierna
	leg
		-ku:ts (C) "pierna, canilla"
		mets- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas) 
		-metsku:yu (C, SD) "pierna, muslo"

pijije, pixixe (clase de pato)
	duck sp.
		pixi:xi (C, SD) 

pilar
	to thrash, to hull (grain)
		-chiwa pilar (SD) 

Piltepeque (lugar, volcancito)
	Piltepeque (place name, volcano name)
		sakatepe:t (C) 

pinol (pinole)
	pinole (powder or flour for eating or for drinks)
		pinu:l (C) 
		pinu(:)l (SD) 

pinol dulce, tapinol
	sweet pinole (corn flour toasted with sugar and  cinnamon) 
		nexpinu:l (C, SD) 

pintado, saradito, penguito, pintado de varios colores 
	motley, of various colors
		kwikwilnah (C, SD) 
		kwikwiltsin (C) 

pintado de la cara, sucio de la cara 
	with painted face, with dirty face 
		i:xkwikwilnah (C) 

pintar de varios colores
	to paint various colors, to make lines/figures 
		kwikwilua (C) 

pinto, color florido
	spotted, motley, plaid, of various colors
		kwikwilihtuk (C) 

pinzas, tenazas; pulgar
	pinchers; thumb 
		-tumakmey (C) 

pina
	pineapple
		ku:ma:tsah (C) 

pinuela (mata de pina) 
	pineapple plant 
		tsinku:ma:tsah (C) 

piocha
	pick, pickaxe 
		pi(y)ocha(h) (SD) 

piojillo, piojo de gallina 
	chicken louse 
		i:xtakayu-t (SD) 
		ta:lwaktsin (C) 

piojo
	louse
		atime-t (C, SD) 

piojo blanco, chichuisa 
	white louse
		isakatime-t (C) 

piojo de gallina, piojillo 
	chicken louse 
		i:xtakayu-t (SD) 

piojoso
	lousy
		atimputs (C) 
		atin-puts (SD) 

pipa
	pipe
		pipa(h) (SD) 
		kachimbu (C) "pipa (para fumar)"

pipian, pepian, pepitorio
	a kind of sause
		pipiyan (SD) 

pipil, nahuate (lengua)
	Pipil
		na:wa-t (C, SD) 

piscar, tapiscar
	to pick (corn), to harvest
		pixka (C, SD) 

pisque (tamalito de masa)
	small tamale of corn dough and salt with nothing inside
		tapi:k (C, SD) 
pisto, dinero
	money
		tumin (C, SD) 

pita (mecate); maguey
	string; century plant
		ich-ti (C, SD) 

pita (mecate); bejuco 
	string/cord; vine
		meka-t (C, SD) 

pitajaya (pitahaya)
	cactus sp. (pitahaya cactus) 
		i:xwahlaka (SD) 
		pitahaya (C) 

pitar, soplar pito
	to whistle, to blow a whistle
		pitsa (SD) 
		tapitsa (SD) "estar pitando"

pito
	whistle   
		pito(h) (SD) 
		pi:tuh (C) 

pixixe, pijije (clase de pato)
	duck sp.
		pixi:xi (C, SD) 

pixton (tortilla grande y gruesa)
	a kind of tortill, thick and large
		pixtun (C) 

pizote (tejon)
	coatimunde
		pesu-t (Teotepeque)

plaga
	plague, pest
		pla:gah (SD) 

planta del campo (un monte, una planta del campo) 
	a wild plant sp.
	tekpa-t (SD) 
plantilla, planta de pie 
	sole (of foot)
		-elpan 
		-(i)kxi (C, SD) 
		(i)kxi taxkal (C) 
		-plantiyah-yu (SD) 

plata
	silver
		platah (SD) 
		tumin (SD) "plata, oro, plomo, dinero"

platano (platano macho) 
	plantain
		pula (C, SD) 

platano (en Mexico), guineo (en Centro America) 
	banana
		kiniyah (C, SD) 

platano asado (pajaro)
	bird sp. ("fried plantain")
		siwa:mun 
		ramo:nah, siwarramona(h) (C) 

plateado (pescado)
	fish sp. 
		pepetska (C, SD) 

platicar
	to chat
		tahtaketsa (C, SD) 

plato, traste
	plate, dish
		platuh (SD) 

plaza
	plaza, town square
		plasah (SD) 

plazuela 
	small square, kpark 
		plaswelah (SD) 

pluma (de pajaro) 
	feather
		-plumah-yu (SD) 
		-uhmi-yu (C, SD) 

plumillo (arbol)
	tree sp.
		waska-t (SD) 

pobrecito
	poor, poor thing 
		pobrehchin (SD) 

pobreza
	poverty
		pobresah (SD) 

poco
	little, few
		achi, atsi (C) "poco, pequeno" 
		chupi (C, SD) "poco, un poco"

poco a poco
	little by little
		chuhchupika (SD) 

poder
	to be able, can
		weli (C, SD) 

podrir, pudrir
	to rot
		pala:ni (C, SD) 

policia
	police
		polisiya(h) (SD) 

polvo
	dust
		teh-ti (C) 
		tew-ti (SD) 

polvora
	gunpowder
		polbora(h) (SD) 

polvoso
	dusty
		tehmatsnah (C) 
		tewtital (SD) 

poner, llevar (ropa), sentar(se) 
	to put, to place; to wear 
		ta:lia (C, SD) 

poner al hombro, llevar al lomo, llevar a cucuch
	to put/carry on/over one's shoulder
		teputswia (C, SD) 

poner al suelo, dejar al suelo, acostar
	to put on the ground,  to leave on the ground,  to lay something down
		te:ka (C) 

poner cabeza abajo, agachar
	to bend over, to put upside-down 
		tatsumpilua (SD) 
		tsumpilua (C, SD) 

poner en frente, poner delante de 	
	to put/place in front/before 
		i:xpanua (C)

poner huevos
	to lay eggs
		pi:xua (C) 
		pixua (SD) 
		tapi:xua (C) "estar poniendo" 
		tapixua (SD) "estar poniendo"

poner juntos, reunir(se), unir(se) 
	to put/place together, to unite, to join 
		se:nta:lia (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.)

poner otro encima, endosar
	to place on top of
		nepanua (C, SD) 

ponerse el sol
	for the sun to set, go down 
		kalaki tu:nal (C, SD) 

por ahi, ahi
	there, over there
		ikuni (SD) 

por alla
	there, over there 
		ka ne: (SD) 
		ka ne:pa (C) 

por aqui
	here, over here
		ka ni:kan (C) 
		ka nikan (SD) 

por eso
	therefore, for that reason 
		haika (C) 
		ika (C) "por eso, a veces"

por favor
	please
		xi-k-chiwa 
		ne hwabor (SD) 

por pocos
	almost, but for a few (?) 
		ahatsi:ka (C) 

por ratos
	at times, somewhat earlier (?) 
		yehye:wa ika (C) 

por que?
	why
		ke:nka (C) 
		tayika (SD) 

porque
	because
		porke (C) 
		tayika (SD) 

potrero
	pasture
		sakatal (SD) 
		u:watal (C, SD) "potrero, guatal"

pozol
	posole (corn drink)
		pu:su:l (C) 
		pusul (SD) 
		pu:su:lka (C) "pozol, chingaste, caxte, rapa" 
		pusulka (SD) "pozol, chingaste, caxte, rapa" 
		-tsinkach-yu (SD) "pozol, xinga, chingaste (asiento, sedimento)"  
		-xi:nka (C) "pozol, chingaste, asientos, sedimento humedo"

pozolear, pedacear
	to crumb, to break into pieces
		mumuxua (C, SD) 

precio
	price
		-pati-w (C, SD) 

preguntar
	to ask
		tahtanilia (C, SD) 

prender (encender), quemar
	to light, to set on fire, to burn
		tatia (SD) 
		ti:maka (C) 
		timaka (SD) 

prenada, embarazada
	pregnant
		utstituk (C, SD) 

prepararse
	to get ready, to prepare (oneself)
		mu-chiwa alistar (C) 

preparar su propia comida a uno, mantenerse
	to fix one's own food, to take care of oneself 
		tekipanua (C, SD) 

presa
	dam
		presa(h) (SD) 
		tapada(h) (SD) 

preso
	prisoner
		presu(h) (SD) 
		tsaktuk (C) 

prestar
	to loan
		takwiltia (C, SD) "prestar, fiar" 
		tane:wiltia (C) "prestar"

prima, primo
	cousin
		primah (SD) "prima" 
		primoh (SD) "primo"

primero
	first
		achtu (C, SD) 
		primo; cf. prima, primo

principal (el que empieza una reunion, el que pide la novia de parte del novio, el principal en una fiesta)
	the principal person at a ceremony, the one that asks for the bride on behalf of the groom, 	the one who starts meetings
		tahtu:li (SD) 

principe
	prince
		principe
		principeh (C) 

pringar
	to sprinkle
		i:xtatsini (SD) "pringar, rodarse (de granos)"
		tahtatsi:ni (C) "pringar, lloviznar" 
		tatsi:ni (C) "pringar"
		xihxini (SD) "pringar (lloviznar)"

prisa (con), de prisa, apresurado
	hurried, in a hurry
		presisudoh (SD) 
		
probar (comida)
	to try (food)
		-chiwa probar (SD) 
		-chiwa saborear (SD) 
		ehekua (SD) 
		taehekua (SD) "probar (algo)"
procesion de elotes (para celebrar que tienen nuevamente maicito)" 
	procession to celebrate and give thanks for new corn
		sintupil (C) 

promiscua, mujer sin formalidad 
	promiscuous woman
		tsinkekex (SD) 

pronto, luego
	soon, right away
		neman-a (C, SD) 

prostituta, puta
	prostitute
		siwa:pala (SD) 

prostituta (ser), prostituirse
	to be a prostitute, for a woman to sell herself as a prostitute
		mu-tsinna:maka (SD) 

pucuyo, pajaro caballero, pajaro leon, pijuyo, tijul
	bird sp.
		pukuyuh (C, SD) 

pudrir, podrir
	to rot, to get rotten
		pala:ni (C, SD) 

pueblo (el pueblo y su gente) 
	town (the town and its people) 
		chi:na:mi-t (C) 

pueblo
	town
		te:chan (SD) 
		tuchan (C) 

puente
	bridge
		ku:panu:was (C) "puente de palos" 
		pwenteh (SD) 

puerca, tunca, marrana
	sow (female pig)
		siwa:kuyame-t (SD) 

puerco, marrano, tunco 
	pig, swine
		kuyame-t (C, SD) 

puerco espin, zorro 
	espin porcupine 
		witstakwatsin (C) 

pues
	well, then
		kene(h) (C) 

puesto
	post, position, office 
		palestrah (C) "puesto, oficio, sitio" 
		pwestoh (C) 

pujar, quejarse
	to complain
		kikinaka (C, SD) 

pulga
	flea
		tekpin (C, SD) 

pulgar; tenazas, pinzas
	thumb; pinchers
		-tumakmey (C) 

pulmon, bofe
	lung
		puhpus (C, SD) 

pullar, picar
	to stab, to sting, to stick
		tsupina (C, SD) 
punta
	point, tip
		puntah (C, SD) 
		puntahchin (SD) "puntita" 
		-tsun (C) 
		tsun- (C, SD) 'punta, cabeza, pelo' (en palabras compuestas)

punta (sacarles), hacerlos puntiagudos 
	to sharpen, to make pointed (pl.) 
		tsuhtsuntamehtia (C) 
Punta de Agua (lugar)
	Point of Water (place name) 
		a:tahtsumpan (C) 

puntudo, puntiagudo
	pointed, sharp pointed
		puntudu(h) (SD) 
		tsuntameh (C) 

Q
que, lo que (conj.)
	that which (conj.)
		ha (C) 

que (pronombre relativo)
	that, who, which (relative pronoun) 
		ka (C) 
		ka(h) (SD) 

que?, que
	what
		ta: (C) 
		tay (SD) 

quebracho, cicahuite (arbol) 
	tree sp., quebracho tree 
		tsihkwawi-t (C) 
	
quebracho blanco
	tree sp., white quebracho tree 
		askaw (SD) 
	
quebrada 
	ravine, gulch, canyon
		kebrada (C) 

quebrantahueso, tzonchiche, sunchiche (zopilote cabeza roja) 
	vulture sp. red-headed vulture
		tsunchi:chi:l (C, SD) 
	
quebrar, quebrarse
	to break
		kupe:wa (C) "quebrar (madera)" 
		kupe:wi (C) "quebrarse"

quebrar nixtamal, quebrar maiz
	to grind corn (in the first grinding/first pass through), to break the kernels of corn
		paya:na (C, SD) 
	
quedarse
	to stay, to remain
		naka (C, SD) 
		(w)alnaka (C) 
	
queja
	complaint
		ke:hah (SD) 
	
quejarse
	to complain
		kikinaka (C, SD) 
		tahtawilia (C, SD) "quejar(se)"

quemar, quemarse
	to burn
		chichinua (C, SD) "quemar, chamuscar" 
		tata (C, SD) "quemarse"
		tatia (C, SD) "quemar"

quequexque, quequesque
	plant sp. (stings) 
		kekexke (C, SD) 
		kekex-ti (SD) 

querer
	to want, to like
		neki (C, SD) "querer, desear"
		tasuhta (C, SD) "querer, amar, estimar"

queresa (huevo de mosca, gusanillo de mosca) 
	maggot(s)
		ihkwi:ch (C) 
		ihkwich (SD) 

queso
	cheese
		ke:suh (SD) 

quiamol, guajmol, cuajmol (raiz que se usa para banarse) 
	a root (used for bathing)
		kiyahmul (C) 
		kiyahmu:l (SD) 

quiebrapalito (insecto)
	"walking-stick" insect (praying mantis ?)
		kampanamal (SD) 

quien?, quien
	who
		ka: (C) 
		kah (SD) 
		kahuni (C) "quien"

quien sabe, a saber, saber
	who knows?, it's unknown, I don't know 
		ka ke:n (C) 

quieto, despacio
	quiet, slow
		nehmach (C, SD) 

quijada
	jaw
		-kamachal (C) 
		-ka:machal (SD) 
		-te:ntsi:ka-w (C, SD) "quijada, barbilla, menton"

quimilila, chimichaco (varita, carrizo)
	reed sp.
		chimicha:ka-t (C) 

quita-calzon (avispota)
	wasp sp. ("removes-pants")
		sakakalson (SD) 

quitar, trasladar, apartar
	to take away, to set aside, to move from one place to another
		ihkwani (SD) 
		ihkwania (C) 

quitarle algo a alguien
	to take something away from someone 
		ki:xtilia (C) 
	
quizas
	maybe, perhaps
		anka (C) 
		anka-kiya (C) "quizas asi" 
		anka-kiya (SD) "quizas si"
					
R
	
rabadilla
	tailbone, rump
		-tsumbankuh-yu (SD) 
	
rabia
	rabies
		rabiya(h) (SD) 
	
racimo, gajo
	section of fruit, bunch of fruit 
		ga:hu(h) (SD) 
	
raiz
	root
		nelwa-t (C, SD) 
		rayis (SD) 
	
rajar, rajarse
	to split
		i:xtsaya:na (C, SD) "rajar, destrozar" 
		i:xtsaya:ni (SD) "rajarse, romperse, abrirse" 
		tatsaya:na (SD) "rajar (algo)"
		tsaya:na (C, SD) "rajar"
		tatsahtsaya:na (C) "rajar, estar rajando, romper, estar rompiendo"
	
rajar la frente
	to split the forehead
		kwa:tapa:na (C) 
		kwa:tsaya:na (C) 
	
rajar lena
	to split firewood 
		ku:tapa:na (C) 
	
ralo
	thin (of liquids) 
		sehsennah (C) 
rama 
	branch
		-mahtsal (C) 

ramada, ramadita, rancho
	hut, shack
		xahkal (C, SD) 

rana 
	frog
		ranah (C, SD) 

rancho
	native house, shack, hut, shed
		tawipan-ti (C) "rancho (casa indigena), entoldo" 
		xahkal (C, SD) "rancho, ramada, ramadita"

ranura
	groove, slit, split
		tsaya:ntuk (SD) 

rapa, pozol, chingaste 
	dregs, grounds 
		pu:su:lka (C) 
		pusulka (SD) 

rapido
	fast
		lihero (SD) 

raquitico, delgado 
	skinny, undernourished 
		ku:pitsaktsin (C) pili:xnah (SD) 

rascar
	to scratch
		wawa:na (C, SD) 
		tawawa:na (SD) "rascar, estar rascando"

raspar
	to scrape
		ihchiki (C, SD) "raspar, restregar, estregar" 
		ihxihxi:ma (C) "raspar (con machete)" 
		taihxihxi:ma (C) "estar raspando (con machete)" 
		wawa:na (C) "raspar, rascar, arrascar"
		wawasua (SD) "raspar, rayar" 
		xi:ma (SD) "raspar, rasurar"

rastro
	trail, trace, vestige
		rastruh (SD) 

rasurar, rasurarse
	to shave
		te:nxi:ma (C) (t.v., r.v.) "rasurar(se), afeitar(se)" 
		xi:ma (SD) "rasurar, raspar"
		mu-chiwa nabahiar (SD) "rasurarse, afeitarse"

rata, raton
	rat, mouse
		kimichin (C, SD) 

rato
	a while
		ra:tuh (SD) 

raton, rata
	mouse, rat
		kimichin (C, SD) 

raya del cabello, raya del pelo, camino del pelo 
	part (in hair)
		iyuh -tsunkal, -uh -tsunkal (SD) 
		-kwa:-uhpan

rayado
	striped, lined, scratched
		wawasuhtuk (SD) 

rayar, raspar
	to scratch, to make scratches, lines, stripes
		wawasua (SD) 

rayo, centella
	lightning
		senteyah (SD) 

raza
	race, breed
		ra:sah (SD) 

rebajar
	to reduce
		kaxa:wa (C) "rebajar, mermar"
		ka:xawa (SD) "rebajar, mermar"
		tsintemultia (C) "rebajar, retroceder"

rebozo
	shawl, scarf
		pa:yuh (C) "rebozo, pano"
		-rebos (SD) 

rebuscar
	to search, to look all over for
		tehte:mua (C) 

recio
	hard
		duru(h) (SD) "recio, duro"
		we:y "recio, bastante"

recoger
	to gather, to pick up
		a:na (C, SD) "recoger, guardar"
		pehpena (C, SD) "recoger, pepenar, picotear"
		ululua (C) 
		taululua (C) "recoger (algo), estar recogiendo"

recoger en un monton, amontonar
	to gather in a pile/heap, to pile, to heap together
		se:mpu:tsua (C) 

recoger lena, picar lena, lenar
to gather firewood, to chop firewood, to get firewood
		kwahkwawi (C, SD) 

reconocer 
	to recognize, to know
		i:xmati (C, SD) 

reconvalecente (persona)
	convalescent (person)
		kukux (SD) 

recordar
	to remember
		ali:sa (SD) 

recto, derecho
	straight
		melaktik (C) 
		rektu(h) (SD) 

rechazar
	to reject, to refuse
		-chiwa rechasiar (SD) 

red, rede, matate
	net
		ma:ta-t (C, SD) 
		rede(h) (SD) 

redondo
	round
		mimilnah (C) "redondo, rollizo" 
		ululnah (C) "redondo, esferico" 
		yawalnah (C) "redondo, circular"

refajo, enagua, nagua, falda
	skirt
		kweya-t (SD) 
		kweyi-t (C) 
		-tsin-ahpan (C) "refajo"

refinar (maiz), repasar, moler muy fino
	to grind (corn) very fine
		kwe:chua (C) 
		takwe:chua (C, SD) "estar refinando, moliendo muy fino"

regadio, apante
	irrigated field
		a:panti (C) 

regalar
	to give (as a gift)
	takulia (C, SD) 
	taku:lia (C) 
	tatakulia (C, SD) "regalar (algo)"

reganar, ladrar, latir
	to scold, to bark
		ahahwa (C, SD) 
		ahwa (C, SD) 
		tiahwa (C, SD) 

regar, regarse
	to scatter, to sprinkle
		ahwilia (C) "regar, mojar" 
		a:teki (SD) "regar" 
		a:te(:)kia (C) "regar" 
		chaya:wa (C, SD) "regar, extender, tender" 
		se:ntalua (C, SD) "regar"
		xi:ni (C) "regarse, botarse, caerse una fruta" 
		xini (SD) "regarse, botarse, caerse una fruta" 
		xi:nia (C) "regar, esparcir (agua, semilla)" 
		taxi:nia (C) "regar, estar regando"
		(w)alxi:ni (C) "regarse, caerse (fruta)"

regazo, chineado
	lap
		-elpan (SD) 
		-metspan (C, SD) 

registrar, revisar
	to check, to search 
		pe:peta (C) 

regresar, volver
	to return
		kwepa (C, SD) 

reir, reirse
	to laugh
		pa:ki (SD) 
		pa:ktia (C) "hacer reir"
		pahpa:kilia (C) "estar riendose de otro, reirse" 
		pa:kilia (SD) "reirse de otro"
		te:paktia (C) "hacer reir"
		wetska (C) "reirse"

relampaguear
	to lightning, to be lightning
		takipi:ni (C, SD) 

relinchar
	to whinny, to neigh
		-chiwa relinchar (SD) 

(relumbra) cosa que relumbra, brilla 
	shining, sparkling, glittering 
		tsitsinaka (C, SD) 

remedio, medicina
	remedy, medicine
		pah-ti (C) 
		remedyu(h) (SD) 

remienda
	patch
		remi(y)enda(h) (SD) 

remolino (de aire) 
	whirlwind
		ahkamalaka-t (C) 

rempujar, empujar
	to shove, to push 
		i:xtupewa (SD) 

renacuajo, tepocate 
	tadpole
		sapiyuh (SD) 
		tsun-a:lepu (C) 

renco
	lame in one leg 
		metskalapa "renco, cojo de un pie, patojo de un pie" 
		metskelu (C) 

rendirse
	to get tired, exhausted
		kuhku:tiya (C) "rendirse, cansarse" 
		kwahkwalu (C) "rendirse, cansarse mucho"

rendirse de estar sentado, cansarse de estar sentado 
	to tire of sitting, of being seated 
		mu-tsinku:tiya (C) 

repartir
	to distribute, to pass/hand out
		mahmaka (C) 

repasar (maiz), moler muy fino
	to grind (corn) very 
		kwe:chua (C) 
		takwe:chua (C, SD) "estar repasando, moliendo muy fino"

repellar
	to finish (the surface of something, e.g. pots, walls) 
		i:xma:ti:lua  (C) "repellar, refinar frotando la superficie de algo" 
		ma:ti:lua (C) "repellar, alisar (p. ej. pared)" 

repicar
	to peal, to ring
		tsilini (SD) 
		tatsili:nia (C) 
		tatsilinia (SD) 

repollo
	cabbage
		repoya(h) (SD) 

repuesto, cambio 
	replacement, spare part 
		-patka (C, SD) 
requemarse (plantas)
	to parch, to burn in the sun (of plants)
		kala:tata (C) 

requeson
	a cheese like cottage cheese, curd
		rekeson (SD) 

res, toro, buey
	cow, beef, ox, bull
		turuh (SD) 

resbalar, resbalarse
	to slide
		metspetu:ni (C) "resbalar" 
		pehpetu:ni (C, SD) "resbalarse" 
		petu:ni (C) "resbalarse" 
		xi:pinawi (SD) "resbalarse, patinar"

resecarse, secarse
	to dry out, to desecate
		i:xwa:ki (C) 

resembrar
	to replant
		tapatka:wia (C) 

resentirse
	to resent, to be offended 
		mu-te:kukuhmati (C) 

resfriarse, enhelarse
	to get cold
		sekkalaki (C, SD) 

resfrio
	a cold
		desfriyo (SD) 

resonar, sonar (como el golpe de una cubeta que resuena) 
	to resound, to clank (like a bucket)
		tsala:ni (SD) 

restregar, restregarse
	to scrub
		ihchiki (C, SD) "restregar, raspar"
		xahxakwalua (C) "restregarlos"
		xakwalua (C) "restregar" 
		mu-xuhxulewa (SD) "restregarselos" 
		xulewa (C, SD) (t.v, r.v.) "restregar(se)"
resucitar, revivir
	to revive, to come to life
		i:xyu:lkwi (C) 
		yu:lkwi (SD) 

retono, cojollo, broton 
	sprout, bud, shoot, tip 
		-mulinka (C) 

retorcer, torcer pita (mecate) 
	to twist
		mali:na (C) 
		ma:lina (SD) 

retroceder, rebajar
	to go backwards, to reverse, to go back down
		tsintemultia (C) 

reumatismo
	rheumatsim
		romatis (SD) 

reunion, junta
	meeting
		hunta(h) (SD) 

reunir, reunirse, unir, unirse, poner juntos
	to meet, to unite, to put together, to come together 
		se:nta:lia (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.)

reventar la cabeza, reventarse la cabeza
	to break open the head
		tsuntapa:na (SD) (t.v., r.v.)
		tsuntapa:na (C) "reventar la cabeza"

revisar, registrar
	to check, to search
		pe:peta (C) 

revivir
	to revive, to come to life 
		i:xyu:lkwi (C) 
		yu:lkwi (SD) 

revolar, aletear, revolotear, volar
	to flap, to fly around, to flutter
		papataka (C, SD) 

revolcar, revolcarse, rodar, rodarse, girar 
	to revolve, to rotate
	i:xmimilua (C) (t.v., r.v.)

revolotear, revolar, aletear, volar
	to flutter, to fly around, to flap
		papataka (C, SD) 

revolver, mezclar
	to mix 
		-chiwa rebolber (SD) 

revuelto, mixto, mezclado
	mixed together
		rebwelto(h), rewelto(h) (SD) 

rey
	king
		re:y (C) 

rezar
	to pray
		-chiwa resar (SD) 

rico
	delicious; rich
		bi:dah (C) "rico, sabroso" 
		rikuh (SD) "rico, prospero"

rigua (tortilla de elote tierno) 
	rigua, tortilla or tamale made of immature corn 
		taxkal (SD) 
		tsikpa (C) 

rincon
	corner
		tsin-kal (C) 

rinon
	kidney
		rinyon (SD) 

rio
	river
		a:-t (C, SD) "rio, agua" 
		a:pan (SD) 

rio (nombre de un rio)
	name of a river
		tel-tsapuyuh (SD) 

Rio Cuyuapa
	Cuyuapa River (river name) 
		ku:yua:pan (SD) 

Rio Escucu
	Escucu River (river name) 
		eskukuh, a:t eskukuh (SD) 

Rio Frio, Rio Haragan
	"Cold River" (river name) 
		sesekapan (SD) 

Rio Haragan
	"Lazy River" (river name) 
		tatsuwis-a:t (SD) 
		sesekapan (SD) 

Rio la Barranca
	"Ravine River" (river name) 
		ustu:t-a:t (SD) 

Rio Tepechata
	Tepechata River (River name) 
		tuwa:pan (SD) 

risa 
	laughter, laugh
		wetska (C) 

rizo, colocho, crespo
	curl
		muruxu (SD) 

robar
	to rob, to steal
		(i)chteki (C) 
		ichteki (SD) 
		tachteki (C) "robar (algo), estar robando" 
		tichteki (SD) "robar (algo), estar robando"

rodar, rodarse
	to roll
		i:xmimilua (C) (t.v., r.v.) "rodar(se), revolcar(se), girar"

rodilla
	knee
		-ta:wah, -ta:bah (C) "rodilla, rotula"
		-tewahka (C, SD) 

rojear, hacer rojo
	to redden, to make red
		chi:chi:ltia (C) 
		chihchi:ltia (SD) 

rojizo, coloradoso 
	reddish
		chichi:lnah (SD) 

rojo, colorado
	red
		chi:ltik (C, SD) 

rollizo, redondo
	round (like a log) 
		mimilnah (C) 

romo, tulupo (sin punta)
	dull, blunt
		tsuntulupu (C) 

romper, romperse
	to tear, to break, to rip
		i:xtsaya:ni (SD) "romperse, rajarse, abrirse"
		tsaya:na (C) "romper, rajar"
		tatsahtsaya:na (C) "romper, estar rompiendo, rajar, estar rajando"

roncar
	to snore
		-chiwa rongear (SD) 

roncha, erupcion
	rash
		kurrunchuh (SD) 

ronron
	insect sp. (june bug ?)
		luhlun (SD) 

ropa, trapo, tela 
	clothes, cloth 
		kwa:ch-ti (SD) 

rosado
	pink
		rosado(h) (SD) 

rotula
	knee cap
		-ta:wah, -ta:bah (C) "rotula, rodilla" 
		-wahkal (SD) 
		i-wahkal -tewaka (SD) 
roza
	clearing land (the clearing of ground)
		tayil (C, SD) "la roza"
rozar
	to clear/clean land
		tayi (C, SD) "rozar, limpiar milpa, rozar monte" 
		xa:wa (C) "rozar, desmontar, guatalear"
		xawa (SD) "rozar, desmontar, guatalear"
		taxawa (SD) "estar rozando, rozar (algo)"

rozar palos, botar palos, hachar palos (tumbar, cortar arboles    
	to chop down trees
		tsine:wa (C, SD) 
	
ruda
	plant sp., rue plant 
		rudah (SD) 
	
rueda
	wheel
		rweda(h) (SD) 
	
ruedo
	hem (of skirt) 
		rwedo(h) (SD) 

S
sabana, cobija
	sheet, blanket
		take:n (C) 
	
sabana (prado de zacatal)
	meadow, pasture
		i:xta:wak (C, SD) 
	
saber
	to know
		mati (C, SD) 
	
saber, a saber, (quien sabe)
	who knows?, I don't know, it is unknown 
		ka ke:n (C) 
		tesuki-mati (SD) 
	
sabroso
	delicious
		ahwiyak (C, SD) 
		bi:dah (C) "sabroso, rico"
sacar
	to remove, to get out, to take out 
		i:xtia (SD) 
		ki:xtia (C) 
		taki:xtia (C) "sacar (algo)" 
		(w)ali:xtia (SD) 
		(w)alki:xtia (C) 
	
sacar del agua
	to take/get out of the water
		a:ki:xtia (C) 
		a:i:xtia (SD) 

sacarles punta, hacerlos puntiagudos
	to make them pointed, to sharpen them (with points)
		tsuhtsuntametia (C) 

sacerdote, cura, padre
	priest
		pa:leh (C, SD) 

sacristan
	sacristan, sexton
		sakristan (SD) 

sacudir
	to shake
		ihtsilitsa (C) "sacudir, temblar" 
		tsehtselua (C, SD) 

sagrado, Dios, santo
	holy, God, saint
		tiyu(:)-, tiyuh- (C, SD) "estar sahumando, sahumar" 
		pupuchwia (C) 
		tapupuchwia (C) "sahumar (algo), estar sahumando"

sahumeador, incensario
	brasier, incense dish
		tikaxi-t (SD) 

saite, chaite (mata de pitajaya) 
	cactus sp.
		xuwahla:ka-t (C) 

sal
	salt
		ista-t (C, SD) 

salado
	salty
		puyek (C, SD) 

salamo
	tree sp.
		sala:mah (C) 
		salamu(h) (SD) 

salar
	to salt
		istawia (C, SD) 
		taistawia (C)  "estar salando, salar"

salicolchon (pajaro)
	bird sp. 
		wakalchiyah (SD) 

salir
	to leave
alki:sa (C, SD) "salir (afuera)"
		ki:sa (C, SD) 
salir escondido 
	to leave (in hiding)
		(w)altsinki:sa (SD) 
saliva
	saliva, spit
		chihchal (SD) 
		tachihchal (C) 
		-te:n-a:yu (SD) 

salpullido
	rash
		xa:ltutu:n (SD) "salpullido, sarna" 
		xa:ltutu:nik (C) 

salsa
	sause
		chi:lalahka (C) "salsa (picante)" 
		salsa(h) (SD) 

saltar, brincar
	to jump, to leap
		tsikwi:ni (C, SD) 

salto de agua
	waterfall
		saltu(h) (SD) 
		walchachapaka (C) "salto de agua, chorro de agua (cascada)"

saludar
	to greet
		-chiwa saludar

San Julian (lugar)
	San Julian (place name)
		ka:ka:lu:tan (C) 

San Salvador
	San Salvador
		san salbador

sanarse
	to get better, to cure
		pahti (C) "sanarse, curarse" 
		mu-pahtia (C) "sanarse, curarse" 
		ye:ktiya (SD) "sanarse, mejorarse"

sandia
	watermelon
		sandiya (C) 
		sandiya(h) (SD) 

sangrar
	to bleed
		eski:sa (C, SD) 

sangre
	blood
		es-ti (C, SD) 

Santa Catarina Mazahuat (lugar)
	Santa Catarina Mazahuat (place name) 
		masa:wa (SD) 

Santiago (nombre personal)
	James (person's name)
		xa:nti (C) 

santo (imagen) 
	saint, image
		dios (SD) 
		dioschin (SD) 

santo
	saint
		santu(h) (SD) 

santo, sagrado, Dios 
	holy, God 
		tiyu(:)-, tiyuh- (C, SD) (en palabras compuestas)

sapo
	toad
		sapuh (SD) 

saporar, saporarse, molestar, molestarse, sofocarse
	to bother, to trouble, to be bothered, troubled
		kakasua (C) (t.v., r.v.) 

sarampion
	measles
		sarampion (SD) 

sardina 
	sardine, any small fish
		sardina(h) (SD) 

sarna, salpullido
	mange, rash
		xa:ltutu:n (SD) 

sarten
	frying pan, cooking dish 
		porsulana(h), posolana(h) (SD) 
		sarten, sartena (SD) 
		xa:lte:n (C) 

sastre
	tailor
		sastre(h) (SD) 
satisfacerse (de comida), llenarse (de comida) 
	to satiate, to be full (of food)
		i:xwi (C, SD) 

sazon
	ripe, mature
		chikahtuk (C) 

sazonarse
	to ripen, to mature 
		chika:waya (C) 

Sebastian (nombre personal) 
	Sebastian (person's name) 
		xe:puh (C) 

Sebastiana (nombre personal) 
	Sebastiana (person's name) 
		xe:pah (C) 

sebo
	tallow, grease
		-sebuh-yu (SD) 

secar, secarse
	to dry
		i:xwa:ki (C, SD) "secarse, resecarse"
		mulu:ni (SD) "secarse (frijol, etc.), volarse (polvo, harina, etc.)"
		mulu:ni(a) (SD) "secar, soplar (harina, polvo, etc.)"
		tawa:tsa (SD) "secar (algo), estar secando" 
		wa:ki (C, SD) "secarse"
		wa:tsa (C, SD) "secar"

seco
	dry
		ku:wa:ktuk (SD) "seco, flaco"
		wa:ktuk (C, SD) 

secreto
	secret
		ichtaka (C, SD) 

sed (tener)
	to be thirsty
		a:miki (C, SD) "tener sed"

segunda capitana (de la cofradia)
	second captainess of the confraternity
		menora(h) (SD) 

"segundo cunado" (segundo marido de una mujer que se vuelve a casar despues de la muerte de su primer marido)
	the second husband  of a woman who remarries after the death of her first husband
		-chawpi-w (C) 

seguro
	certain, sure
		seguru(h) (SD) 

seis
	six
		chikwasi:n (C) 
		chikwasin (SD) 

sello
	seal, stamp
		seyoh (SD) 

sembrador
	planter, sower
		taku:kani (C) 

sembrar
	to plant, to sow
		tu:ka (C, SD) "sembrar; enterrar"
		tatu:ka (C, SD) "sembrar, estar sembrando"

semilla, grano, pepita
	seed, grain, pit
		i:x (C, SD) 

semilla de calabaza, alguaxte 
	squash seed, pumpkin seed 
		ayuhwach (C, SD) 

sencillar, adelgazar, refinar (hacer mas delgado)
	to make thinner, slimmer, to break up
		pitsakua (C) 

sendero, camino
	path, road
		uh-ti (C, SD) 
seno, chichi
	breast, teat
		-chi:chih (C) 
		chichi:wal (SD) 

sensontle, sinsonte, sinsontle 
	bird sp., mocking bird sp. 
		sinsonta (SD) 

sensonte bobo, pajaro 
	bobo bird sp.
		i:xte:mblor (C) 

sentado, estar sentado 
	sitting/seated, to be seated/sitting 
		mu-estuk (SD) 
		mu-etstuk (C) 

sentarse
	to sit (down)
		mu-ta:lia (C, SD) 
		mu-tsinta:lia (C, SD) "sentarse, acurrucarse, ir sentando"

sentir
	to feel, to sense
		-chiwa sentir (SD) 

sentir frio, tener frio
	to be cold, to feel cold
		sekmiki (C, SD) 

senal de tarea o de cuadra
	boundary marker, marker of cord or the part of a field worked in one day 
		i:xku (SD) 

senal un mes antes del dia de la fiesta,  anuncio del primer dia de una fiesta
	signal a month before a ceremonial day, announcement of the first day of a 	ceremony/fiesta
		tepu:na:was (SD) 

senor
	senor, sir
		tahtsin (SD) 
		tutahwan (C) "senor (con respeto)"

senora
	senora, madam, lady
		nantsin (SD) 

sepulcro
	sepulcher, tomb, grave 
		hwabrika(h) (SD) 

sepultura, tumba
	grave, tomb
		xapu-t (C, SD) 

separado, aparte
	separate, apart
		-kwah (C) 

ser, estar, haber
	to be
		nemi (C, SD) 

ser (el ser de uno), aparencia 
	being, appearance, one's form 
		tachalis (SD) 

ser haragan, tener pereza
	to be lazy, to feel lazy 
		tatsiwi (C, SD) 

ser prostituta, vender la mujer su cuerpo
	to be a prostitute, for a woman to sell her body as a prostitute 
		mu-tsinna:maka (SD) 

sereno
	dew
		ahwech (SD) 

servienta, serviente, criada, criado
	servant, maid
		kri(y)adah (SD) "servienta, criada"
		kri(y)aduh (SD) "serviente, criado"

servilleta, mantel(ito) (para tortillas) 
	napkin, small cloth (for tortillas) 
		kwa:ch-ti (C) 
		tamalkwa:ch(-ti) (SD) 

seso
	brains
		-se:suh (SD) 
		tsuntekwi:ch (C) 

si
	yes
		e:he (C) 

si
	if, whether
		a(:)su (C) 
		ma: (C, SD) "si, ojala que" 
		maka (SD) "si, ojala que" 
		su (C, SD) 

siembra
	to planting, sowing
		tatu:kal (C) 

siemprevivo, siempreviva (una planta)
	plant sp., "house-leek" (sempervivum) (?)
		uluxu:chi-t (C) 

sienes
	temples (of head)
		-sentiduh (SD) 

siete cabrillas, siete cabritas (constelacion) 
	a constellation ("seven little goats")
		miyake:-t (C) 
		si(y)ete-kabritu(h) (SD) 

siete-camisa(s) (arbol)
	tree sp. ("seven-shirts" tree) 
		lehi:yah (C) 
		pi:pi:yan (SD) 

la siguanaba (espanto)
	supernatural being (woman like the siren)
		siwa:na:wal (C, SD) 

silenciarse, estar silencio
	to be quiet, to be silent
		tsitsi:kaya (C) 

silencioso
	quiet, silent
		tsitsi:katuk (C) 

silvar, chiflar
	to whistle
		-chiwa chihlar (SD) 
		ma:kiki:sa (C, SD) 
		ma:kiki:si (SD) 

silla, taburete
	chair, stool, small bench 
		ta:wrete(h) (SD) 

simple (de comidas), insipido 
	insipid, tasteless
		a:sesek (C) 

sincuyo, sincuya (clase de anona) 
	anona or custard apple sp. 
		tsinkuya (C, SD) 

sinchucuyo (parte de la espalda de la rabadilla para abajo) 
	small of the back and tailbone
		-tsinkuhku (C, SD) 

sindico
	town secretary or treasurer (municipal office) 
		sindigo (SD) 

sino, pero
	but
		pe(:)ro(h) (C) 
		pe:ro(h), pero (SD) 
		sino (C, SD) (?)

sinsonte, sinsontle, sensontle 
	bird sp., mocking bird sp. 
		sinsonta (SD) 
		sinsontle; cf. sinsonte

sinsontle, chonta
	mocking bird
		a:pawiyani (SD) 

sinsonte bobo, pajaro 
	bobo bird sp.
		i:xte:mblo:r (C) 

"el sipitillo" (espanto)
	"the  sipitillo"  (supernatural  being,  small with a  big  hat, somewhat like the headless 	horseman) 
		sipitiyuh (SD) 

sipote, muchacho
	boy
		pi:pil (C, SD) 
		piltsin (C, SD) 

el sisimite, el sombreron, demonio (ser sobrenatural)
	demon (supernatural being like the headless horseman, with a big hat)
		tsitsimi-t (SD) 

sisimite (arbol)
	tree sp.
		tsitsimikwawi-t (C) 

sitio, oficio, puesto
	office, post, position
		palestrah (C) 
		
sobaco (axila)
	armpit
		-kuxun (SD) 

sobrar
	to be left over, to be extra 
		-chiwa sobra(h) (SD) 

sobras
	left-overs, surplus 
		sohsobras (SD) 

sobre, encima de
	on, on top of
		-(i)hpak (C, SD) 
		pak (C) 

sobrina, sobrino
	niece, nephew
		-sobrina(h) (SD) "sobrina" 
		-sobrino(h) (SD) "sobrino"

socado (firme, apretado)
	tight, tightly tied, firm
		tetek (SD) 

socar, amarrar muy aparetado
	to tighten, to tie tightly
		tetilia (SD) 

sofocar, sofocarse, molestar, molestarse saporar, saporarse 
	to bother, to trouble, to be bothered, troubled
		kakasua (C) (t.v., r.v.)

soguilla, collar
	necklace
		ku:ska-t (SD) 
		-ku:s (SD) 
		ku:s-ti (C) 

sol 
	sun
		tu:nal (C, SD) 

solo
	only, alone
		-san (C, SD) "solo, justamente, mismo" 
		-se:l (C, SD) "solo, solito, solitario" 
		yehkan (C) "solo" (?)
		maya (SD) "solo, solamente"

solo uno
	only one, one alone
		se maya se: (C) 
		se: maya se: (SD) 
		se:-san (C) "solo uno, uno solo" 
		se-san (SD) "solo uno, uno solo"

soltero, joven, muchacho
	bachelor, boy
		piltsin (C) 

sombra
	shade, shadow
		ku:yuwa (SD) "sombra, oscuro, debajo 
		del palo (arbol)" sombra(h) (SD) 
		-sombrah-yu (SD) "sombra de uno"
		-ye:kah-yu (C) 
		-yekaw-yu (SD) 

sombrero
	hat
		suya-t (Jicalapa) 
		-xumpe (C) 
		xumpe (SD) 

"el sombreron" (espanto)
	"Big-Hat" (supernatural being, like the headless horseman)   
		we:yixumpe (C) 

sonar, resonar (como el golpe de una cubeta que resuena)
	to resound, to sound (like a hit on a bucket)
		tsala:ni (SD) 

sonar feo, sonar mal
	to sound bad, to sound ugly
		chachalaka (SD) 

sonarse la nariz
	to blow one's nose
		mu-yakapitsa (SD) 
		mu-yakatsulki:xtia (C) 

sonido del zopilote cuando vuela
	the sound of a vulture when it flies 
		kuskus (SD) 

sonreirse
	to smile
		i:xpahpa:ki (SD) 
		i:xwehwetska (C) 

Sonsonate (lugar) 
	Sonsonate (place name)
		la:bi(:)yah (C) 
		se(:)ntsuna-t (SD) 

sonzapote, sunza, zunza 
	zapote sp. (tree and fruit; with large pit and thin layer  of meat)
		tsuntsapu-t (C, SD) 

sonar
	to dream
		i:xte:miki (C) 
		te:miki (SD) 

sopa
	soup
		iya:yu (SD) 
		kalduh (SD) "sopa, caldo"

soplar
	to blow
		i:xpitsa (C, SD) "soplar, inflar, sorber" 
		kahkani (SD) "soplar, ventilar" (?) 
		mulu:ni(a) (SD) "soplar, secar (polvo, harina, etc.)"

soplar pito, pitar
	to blow a whistle, to whistle (a flute)
		pitsa (SD) 

soplar polvillo de maiz, frijol, arroz; ventilar
	to blow dust, chaff from corn, beans, rice; to fan
		ahka:na (C, SD) 

soplarse
	to fan oneself
		mu-ahkape:wia (C) "soplarse (abanicarse), mosquear" 
		mu-pe:wia (C) "soplarse, abanicarse"

sorber, soplar, inflar
	to sip, to blow, to inflate
		i:xpitsa (C, SD) 

sordo
	deaf
		tesu taka:ki (C) 
		tesu takaki (SD) 

sostener
	to maintain, to keep 
		-chiwa tener (SD) 

suave
	soft
		yama:nik (C, SD) "suave, blando, aguado" 
		yu:lik (C, SD) "suave, despacio"
subir
	to rise, to raise, to go up
		tehku (C, SD) (i.v.)
		tehkultia (C, SD) (t.v.)

sucio (de ropa)
	dirty/soiled (of cloths) 
		ku:puknah (C) 
		puknah (C, SD) 
		ta:lmatsnah (C) 

sucio de la cara, pintado de la cara 
	dirty faced, with painted face 
		i:xkwikwilnah (C) 

sucio de las nalgas
	with dirty buttocks/rump/anus
		tsinnex (C) 
		tsinsu:su:l (SD) 
		tsinta:lmatsnah (C) 

suchicoa, suchicua (culebra) 
	snake sp.
		xu:chiku:wa-t (C, SD) 

sudar
	to sweat
		-chiwa sudar (C) 
		m-itu:nia (SD) 
		m-itu:niya (C) 

suegra, suegro
	mother-in-law, father-in-law 
		-swe:grah (C, SD) "suegra" 
		-swe:groh (SD)  "suegro"

sueldo, pago
	salary, pay
		pa:guh (C, SD) 

suelo, tierra, terreno
	ground, dirt, earth, land 
		ta:l (C, SD) 

suelto
	loose
		sutumik (SD) 

suicidarse, matarse
	to commit suicide, to kill oneself 
		mu-miktia (SD) 
	
sula, nigua
	chigger, small flea
		tsu:lah (SD) 

sunchiche, tzonchiche, quebrantahueso (zopilote cabeza roja) 
	vulture sp. (red-headed vulture)
		tsunchi:chi:l (C, SD) 

sunsa, zunza, sonzapote (arbol y fruta) 
	zapote sp. (tree and fruit) 
		tsuntsapu-t (C, SD) 
	
surco
	furrow
		surkuh (SD) 
	
suspirar
	to sigh, to pant
		ihyu:miki (C) 
		ihyumiki (SD) 

suyacal (capa de palma para la lluvia) 
	palm-leaf rain cape
		su:yakal (C) 
				
T
tabaco
	tobacco
		iya-t (Tacuba)
	
tabanco, tapanco
	loft, attic
		ahkutapech (C, SD) 
	
taburete, silla
	small bench, stool, chair 
		ta:wrete(h) (SD) 
	
taciturno, callado
	quiet, taciturn
		te:nnux (kwit) (C) 
		te:ntatsiwi (C) 
tacon
	heel
		-takon-yu (SD) 
	
tacuazin (tlacuache)
	opossum
		takwatsin (C, SD) 

tajada, gajo, canuto
	section of cane, section of fruit
		nekpach (C, SD) 

talaje, cuerudo (insecto que chupa sangre) 
	insect sp. (sucks blood, has hard shell) 
		ta:ltexkan (C) 
		
talalaise (pescado)
	fish. sp.  (small, ball-shaped) 
		talalaktsin, ta:la:laktsin (SD) 

talapeña, talpetate, peñaco, peñón, peña, roca 
	cliff, boulder
		tapeta-t (C, SD) 

talapo, dragon (pajaro)
	bird sp. (motmot ?)
		ta:la:puts (C) 

talconete, tarconete (clase de lagartija)
	lizard sp.
		petsna:xin (C) 

talconete (animalito que canta cuando va a llover)
	an insect (?) that sings when it is going to rain, sounds like a goat
		ta:lkune:-t (C) 

talega (testiculos o escroto de toro)
	bull's testicles, bull's scrotum
		-kuxun (C) 

talepate (insecto que chupa sangre)
	insect sp. (sucks blood with long, sharp beak) ma:ya-t (C) 
		ta:lepa-t (SD) 

talon
	heel
		-tsinteyu, i-tsinteyu ikxi (C) "talon, carcanal" 
		-tsunteyu -(i)kxi (SD) "talon, tacon de pie"

talpuja (tierra mezclada con piedra, cascajo)
	gravel
		ta:lpu:xak (SD) 
		ta:ltepu:xak (C) 
		tepu:xak (C) 
		tepu(:)xak (SD) 

talupa (hongo de palo podrido) 
	mushroom sp.
		ta:lpupah (SD) 

talquezal (un zacate)
	grass sp.
		ta(:)lketsal (C) 

taltusa, tusa
	gopher (pocket gopher) 
		ta:ltu:san (C, SD) 

talludo, duro, verde, no cocido 
	hard, with stocks, green, not fully cooked 
		pipinik (C, SD) 

tamagas (culebra)
	snake sp. (said to throw "milk" and be poisonous)
		tamakas (C, SD) 

tamagas, piedra de tamagas (colmena)
	kind of beehive
		itew-tamakas (C) 

tamal de carne, nacatamal
	meat tamale, tamale with meat
		nakatamal (C, SD) 

tamal de elote
	tamale made from fresh corn
		yu:ltamal (C) 

tamal de frijol, pupusa
	pupusa, tamale of beans
		ihtikuku (SD) 

tambien
	also, too
		nu:san (SD) 

tambor indigena (de rollizo)  (teponastle) 
	native drum (made from a log) 
		tepu:nawas (C) 

tambor pequeno
	small drum
		we:weh (C) 
		we:we:-t (SD) 

tanate, maleta
	traveling bag, bundle, pack 
		-ta:nah (C, SD) 

tapadera
	lid, cover
		-tsahka (C, SD) 

tapado
	closed, covered
		tsahtuk (C) 

tapado de la mujer (rebozo blanco) 
	shawl for a woman to cover herself with, white shawl, scarf 
		-kwahtsin (SD) 

tapanco, tabanco
	loft, attic
		ahkutapech (C, SD) 

tapar, taparse, cerrar, cerrarse
	to cover, to close
		tsakwa (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.)

tapesco
	a frame woven of  or covered with rods or canes, used as a bed, door, atic, etc.
		tapech (C, SD) 

tapinol, pinol dulce
	sweet pinole (toasted corn flour with sugar and spices)
		nexpinu:l (C, SD) 

tapiscar, piscar
	to pick, to harvest 
		pixka (C, SD) 

tapon
	plug, cork, lid 
		-te:ntsahka (C, SD) 

tarcacaguate, tierra-cacao (cacahuate (?))
	peanut (?)
		ta:lkakawa-t (C, SD) 

tarconete, talconete (clase de lagartija) 
	lizard sp.
		petsna:xin (C) 

tardarse
	to be late, to delay
		i:xtu:na (SD) (i.v.) 
		mu-i:xtu:na (C) (r.v.) 
		(w)ali:xtu:na (C)

tarde
	afternoon, evening
		tiyu:tak (C) 

tarea
	"job", the area worked in one day in a field
		na:wi i:xku (SD) 

tarro (jicara)
	gourd bowl
		xi:kal (C) 

tartajo 
	stutter
		tartaho(h) (SD) 

tartajear
	to stutter
		-chiwa tartahiar (SD) 

tartamudear, no hablar bien
	to stutter, not to speak well
		pupuluka (C) 

tartamudo, lenguaje o habla que no se entiende
	stutter, language or speek that one does not understand
		pupuluka

tartamudo
	stutter
		te:mpupuluka (C) 

tecolote
	owl  
		tekulu:-t (C, SD) 

tecomasuchil, tecomaxuchu, tecomasucho (arbol)
	tree sp.
		tekumaxu:chi-t (C) 
		tekumaxu:chu-t (SD) 
		ku:tekuma (SD) 

tecomate
	bottle gourd
		tekuma-t (C, SD) 

teja
	tile
		te:hah (C, SD) 

tejedor
	weaver
		tatsa:wani (SD) 

tejer
	to weave
		ihkiti (SD) 
		tsa:wa (C) 
		tsa:wa (SD) "hacer ropa (tejer (?))"       

tejon, pizote
	coatimundi
		pesu-t (Teotepeque)

tela, trapo, ropa
	cloth, clothes, rag
		kwa:cvh-ti (SD) 

telarana
	spider web, cobweb
		ite:na:yu tuka-t (SD) 
		tsa:wal (SD) 

temblar
	to tremble, to shake   
		ihtsilika (C) "temblar (personas, animales)" 
		ihtsilikaltia (SD) 

temblor
	earthquake
		ta:luli:n (C) 
		ta:lu:lin (SD) 

tempate (arbol)
	tree sp.
		te:mpah (C, SD) 

tempestad, huracan 
	storm
		tormentah (C) 

tempisque (arbol)
	tree sp.
		te:mpixki (SD) 
		te:mpixkis (C) 

temporal, aguacero 
	storm, downpour 
		tapa:yawi-t (C) 
		tapayawi-t (SD) 

temprano
	early
		ka peyna (SD) 
		peyna (SD) 
		peynasan (C) 
		peynayuk   (SD) "temprano, todavia esta temprano, de la madrugada"
		tapu:ya:wa (C) "temprano, de dia, madrugada, manana"
		tapu:yawa (SD) "temprano, de dia, madrugada, manana"

tenamaste (tres piedras para sostener comal, olla, etc. en el fuego) 
	hearth stones (the three stone in the fire to support  griddles, cooking pots, etc.)
		tenamas (C) 
		tena:mas (SD) 

tenaza, pinzas
	pinchers
		-ma:pa:lah (SD) 
		-tumakmey (C) "tenazas, pinzas; pulgar"

tener
	to have
		piya (C, SD) 

tener agruras
	to have heartburn, indigestion
		yultata (C) 

tener calambre, culebrear, curcuvear
	to have a cramp, to wind, to curve
		mu-kwehkwetua (SD) 

tener frio, sentir frio
	to be cold, to feel cold
		sekmiki (C, SD) 

tener hambre
	to be hungry 
		maya:na (C) 
		mayana (SD) 

tener miedo
	to be afraid, to be scared, frightened 
		mahmawi (C, SD) 

tener pereza, ser haragan
	to feel lazy, to be lazy
		tatsiwi (C, SD) 

tener picazon, picar
	to itch
		yuyumuka (C) 

tener relaciones sexuales con una mujer, ocupar la mujer
	to have sexual relations with a woman, to "occupy" a woman
		-chiwa okupar (SD) 
tender, tenderse
	to spread, to extend
		chaya:wa (C, SD) "tender, extender, regar"
		melawa (C) (t.v., r.v.) "tender(se), enderezar(se)" 
		pata:wa (C, SD) "tender, extender, anchar"
		suwa (C, SD) "tender"
		tachaya:wa (SD) "tender (algo)"
		tasuwa (C, SD) "tender (algo), estar tendiendo"

tenguereche (lagartija)
	lizard
		tachani (C) "tenguereche, miron"
		tengerechol (SD) "tenguereche, tenguerechol"

tenguereche de agua (como lagartija en el agua) (?) 
	water lizard (salamander ?)
		ku:talalahtsin (C) 

tenquique, tenquiqui, tenquiquis (hongo) 
	mushroom sp.
		ku:nanaka-t (SD) 
		te:nki:kis (SD) 

tentar
	to touch, to feel
		chihchimi (SD) "tentar, tocar" 
		ma:tu:ka (C) 
		tachihchimi (SD) "estar tentando"

tenir
	to dye, to color
		maka kolor (SD) 

Teotepeque (lugar)
	Teotepeque (place name)
		tiyu:tepe:t (C) 

tepalcate, tiesto
	potsherd
		ku:ntapa (C, SD) 

tepante (muro de piedras), muro 
	wall, rock wall
		tepan-ti (SD) 

Tepecuyo (lugar)
	Tepecuyo (place name) 
		tepe:kuyut (C) 

tepemichin (pescado)
	fish sp.
		tepemichin (C, SD) 
tepocate, renacuajo 
	tadpole
		sapiyuh (SD) 
		tsun-a:lepu (C) 

tepolcua, tepulcua, culebra de dos cabezas 
	snake sp. ("two-headed" snake) 
		tepu:lku:wa-t (C, SD) 

Tepunaguaste (un riito)
	Tepunaguaste (name of a small river)
		tepu:na:was (SD) 

tepunas, piedra bofa (pomez)
	pumice
		tepunas (C) 
		tepupusa (C) 

tercera capitana (en la cofradia)
	third captainess of the confraternity
		prinsipala(h) (SD) 

terciar, ponerse algo, colgarse algo (como un collar por el cuello)
	to hang, to wear something (e.g. a necklace around the neck) 
		pilua (C) 

tercio, carga, bulta
	load, bundle
		kimil (C) 

terminar, terminarse
	to end, to run out, to terminate
		tami (C, SD) "terminarse, acabarse"
		tamia (C, SD) "terminar, acabar" 
		ye:kwawi (C, SD) "terminarse (el trabajo, una milpa, etc.)"

ternero
	calf
		turuhchin (SD) 
terreno, tierra, suelo
	land, ground, earth
		ta:l (C, SD) 

terreno seco
	dry ground
		wa:kta:l (C) 
terrible, horrible 
	terrible, horrible 
		fierota (SD) 
		terrible(h) (SD) 

testiculo, huevo 
	testicle, egg 
		teksis-ti (C, SD) 

teta, chichi, seno
	teat, breast
		-chi:chih (C) 
		-chichi:wal (SD) 

Tetezcaligue (un rio) 
	Tetezcaligue (river name) 
		tetetzkaliwit, tetetskaliwits (C) 

tetunte (pedazo, cuna)
	wedge, piece of something which is put, for example, under a table leg so it won't move
		ku:tetun (C) 

texcalar (regado para preparar la mezcla)
	mortar, preparations for making mortar (?) 
		texkal (C) 

tia
	aunt
		-pi(:)pi (Ataco)
		-pi:pi (C) "tia, hermana mayor"

tibio
	warm
		yamanka (C) 

ticuco (tamal de frijol)
	tamale with beans fried inside 
		e:xihxi (C) 
		tikukuh (SD) 
tienda
	store
		ti(y)endah (C) 

tiernito, nino tierno (bebe) 
	baby, infant
		xu:lu-t (C, SD) 

tierno, nino (bebe)
	baby, infant
		kune:-t (C, SD) 

tierno (inmaduro)
	tender, immature
		selek (C, SD) 

tierno, peche
	infant, the youngest child of a woman who is pregnant or has had another baby; one who 	dreams all the time; a hen-pecked man; tender, immature
		tsi:pi-t (C) 

tierra caliente (se siente caliente en los pies)
	hot ground
		ta:lnex (C, SD) 

tierra-cacao, tarcacaguate (cacahuate (?))
	peanut
		ta:lkakawa-t (C, SD) 

tieso, duro
	stiff, hard
		tsitsi:ntik (C, SD) 

tiesto (tepalcate)
	potsherd
		ku:ntapa (C, SD) 

tigre (jaguar)
	"tiger" (jaguar)
		tekwani (Teotepeque)

tigrillo causel, molote
	feline sp., small, spotted
		muluktsin (C) 

tihuilote (arbol)
	tree sp.
		te:wi:lu-t (C) 
		te:wilu-t, tewilu:-t (SD) 

tijera, tijerilla (insecto)  (obsceno) 
	earwig (obscene)
		tsinmaxak (SD) 

tijeras
	scissors
		tihera(h) (SD) 
		tiseras (C) 

tijereta (pajaro)
	bird sp. (flycatcher ?) 
		tsintiseras (C) 

tile, tizne, carbon
	soot
		ku:nti:l (C) 
		ti:l (SD) 

tilunco, vano
	vain (?)
		tuluku(h) (SD) 

timbre
	stamp, seal
		timbre(h) (SD) 

tinaja, cantaro
	water jug
		tsutsukul (C, SD) 

tinta, color
	tint, color, hue, shade 
		tinta(h) (SD) 

tio
	uncle
		-tahtay (Ataco) "tio, abuelo"
		ti:yuh (C, SD) 

tirar
	to throw, to shoot
		i:xtia se: tiroh (SD) "tirar, disparar" 
		kumima (SD) "tirar, echar, aventar" mi:ma (C) "tirar con flecha"
		mi:ma (SD) "tirar, echar"
		mu:ta (SD) "tirar, aventar, arrojar" tamu:ta (C, SD) "tirar, estar tirando" 		tahtamu:ta (C) "tirarlos"

tirar con flecha
	to shoot with an arrow
		mi:ma (C) 

titilcuite, titilguita (excremento de gallina clueca) 
	black and very stinky excrement from laying hens   
		ikwit-puyu (SD) 

tizne, tile, carbon
	soot
		ku:nti:l (C) 
		ti:l (SD) 

tizon
	firebrand, burning firewood 
		tikwawi-t (C, SD) 

tlacuache, tacuazin
	opossum
		takwatsin (C, SD) 

toalla
	towel
		twayah (SD) 

tobillo
	ankle
		(i-)i:x -(i)kxi (C, SD) 
tocar
	to touch
		chihchimi (SD) "tocar, tentar"

tocar (instrumento)
	to play (musical instrument)
		tsutsu:na (C, SD) 
		tatsutsu:na (C, SD) "tocar (algo), estar tocando (instrumento)" 

tocar (la puerta)
	to knock (e.g. on the door)
		tuhtunwia (C) 

tocayo, tuque, tuco
	name sake, someone with the same name as someone else 
		-tuka:yuh (C) 
		tukuh (SD) 

todavia no
	not yet   
		te:yuk (C, SD) 

todo, todos
	all, everthing, whole, entire
		muchi (C, SD) 

tol (clase de guacal, jicara) 
	gourd bowl
		xi:kal (SD) 

tomar parte, participar
	to take part, to participate 
		-maka parte(h) (SD) 

tomar prestado (en Centro America prestar)
	to borrow
		takwi (C) "tomar prestado (prestar), fiar(se)" 
		tane:wi (C) 

tomate (jitomate)
	tomato
		tuma-t (C, SD) 

tomatillo
	tomato sp., small tomato
		tumatsin (C) 

tonto
	fool, stupid
		tonto (SD) 
		tsunte-t (SD) "tonto, cabeza de piedra"

tonton, concha del mar
	shell, conch shell
		tu:ntu:n (C, SD) 
topar, trancar
	to bump into, to collide with, to abut, to brace up
		ta:sa (C, SD) "topar(se), trancar"
		tahta:sa (C) "estar topando(se), trancar (algo)"

torcer, torcer pita (mecate)
	to twist, to twist string/thread/cord
		mali:na (C) 
		ma:lini (SD) 

torcer (ropa mojada), ordenar
	to twist (wet clothes), to milk
		patska (C, SD) 

torcer pita (mecate)
	to twist string/thread/cord
		ichma:lini (SD) "torcer pita (hilar)" 
		tamali:na (C) "torcer pita, hacer pita"

tordito
	bird sp., thrush (?)
		teputsu (C) 

toro, buey, res, vaca 
	bull, ox, beef, cow 
		turuh (SD) 

tortear, hacer tortillas 
	to make tortillas 
		taxkalua (C, SD) 
		te:ka (SD)       

tortilla
	tortilla
		tamal (C, SD) 
		taxkal (C, Jicalapa, Chiltiupan) (cf. rigua)

tortilla de camagua
	tamale made from new/immature corn
		tsi:pitamal (C) 

tortolita (paloma)
	dove sp.
		ku:kulu:tsin (C) 
		kukuru:wa (SD) 

tortuga
	turtle
		tux-ti (C) 

tortuga de gonce
	turtle sp. (bends in middle) 
		pustektsin (C) 

tortuga del mar
	sea turtle
		chamarru (SD) 

tortuga del monte 
	land turtle 
		a:yu:tsin (SD) 

tos, catarro
	cough
		tatasi (C) 
		tatasis, tatasi (SD) 

tos ferina 
	whooping cough
		tehe:ri:k (C) 

toser
	to cough
		tatasi (C, SD) 

tostado
	toasted
		taxama:nti (C) 

tostar
	to toast
		(i)hseki (C) 
		i:seki (SD) 
		tahseki (C) "tostar (algo), estar tostado" 
		tai:seki (SD) "tostar (algo), estar tostando"

tostar tortilla
	to toast tortillas
		xa:ma:nia (C) 
		xama:ntia (SD) 
		taxa:ma:nia (SD) "estar tostando"

totoposte
	a kind of very hard bread or tortilla made from thick corn dough, not patted
		tutupuch (C) 

trabajar
	to work
		tekiti (C, SD) 

trabajo
	work
	pegeh (SD)
	teki-t (SD) 
	trabahu(h) (SD)

trabar, trabarse, atorar, atorarse 
	to stick, to get stuck
		ku:naka (C) "trabarse, atorarse" 
		ku:naki (SD) "trabarse, atorarse" 
		ku:naktia (C, SD) "trabar, atorar"

traer
	to bring
		(w)ala:na (C, SD) 
		(w)ali:ka (C) 
		(w)alkwi (C) 
		(w)alwi:ka (C, SD) 

tragadera, buche
	craw, gullet, throat 
		-buchi, -buche (SD) 

tragadero
	throat
		ku:kulu (C) 

tragadero de ave 
	bird's gullet 
		pilili (C) 

tragar
	to swallow
		tulua (C, SD) 

trampa
	trap
		trampah (SD) 
trancar, topar
	to brace, to support, to abut, to bump into
		ta:sa (C, SD) "trancar, topar(se)"
		tahta:sa (C) "estar topando(se), trancar (algo)"

transformador, mico, brujo
	transformer, witch (one who changes into an animal)
		mi:ku (C, SD) 

trapiche
	cane mill, sugar mill
		trapiche, trapichi (SD) 

trapo
	rag, cloth
		kwa:chpala (C, SD) 
		kwa:ch-ti (SD) 

trasladar, quitar, apartar
	to move from one place to another, to remove, to set  aside
		ihkwani (SD) 
		ihkwania (C, SD) 

traspasar, pasar
	to transfer, to pass; to overeat 
		panultia (C, SD) 

traste, plato
	plate, dish
		platuh (SD) 

tren
	train
		tren (SD) 

trenza
	braid
		-tahkwil (C) 

trenzar
	to braid
		tahkwiltia (C, SD) 

trepar, subir
	to climb, to go up, to ascend
		tehku (C, SD) 
tres
	three
		ye:y (C, SD) 

tres cada uno
	three each
		yehye:y (C) 

tres marias (constelacion)
	a constellation ("Three Marys") 
		tres-mariyah (SD) 

trinchera, pante, pantis (medida de lena picada y amontonada) 
	a measure of firewood (chopped and stacked)
		pa:n-ti (SD) 
		ku:pa:n-ti (C) 

tripas, intestino
	intestine(s)
		-kwitaxkul (C) 
		kwitaxkul (SD) "tripa pequena de animal" 
		-tripah-yu (SD) 
		tuxih (SD) 

tripa pequena de animal
	small intestine of animals 
		kwitaxkul (SD) 

tripa-de-vieja (bejuco de laso)
	vine sp. ("old woman's intestine") 
		tripabieha(h) (SD) 

triste (estar), tener tristeza
	to be sad
		mu-techtia (C) 

triste
	sad
		triste(h) (SD) 

trompo (grande)
	top (toy)
		ku:telele (SD) 

tronar
	to thunder
		tikwi:ni (C) 
		tikwini (SD) 
		tsala:ni (C) 

tropezar
	to stumble, to trip 
		mu-ikxichalua (C) 
		tatsunchalua (SD) 

trozar bajo en el tronco, cortar algo con asiento
	to cut the bottom or base of something (e.g. a tree trunk) 
		tsinkutu:na (C, SD) 

trozo
	block or chunk of wood
		tru:suh (C) 
		tru:suhtsin (C) "trocito"

tu, usted, vos
	you
		taha (C, SD) 
		ta(h) (C, SD) (forma abreviada)

tuco, tuque, tocayo
	namesake, someone with the same name as someone else 
		-tukuh (SD) 
		-tuka:yuh (C) 

tuetano, tutano
	marrow
		tutano(h) (SD) 

tufo de zopilote (el mal olor del zopilote) 
	the stench of a vulture, vulture stench 
		tsitsikwihyak (SD) 
		tsitsiwihyak (C) 

tulanco (elote que no se ha llenado bien) 
	ear of corn that has not developed well 
		i:xtuhtulu (C) 

Tular (lugar)
	Tular (place name)
		tu:lin (C) 
tule, tul
	tulle, cattails, reeds 
		tu:l-in (C, SD) 

tulupo, romo (sin punta) 
	blunt, dull
		tsuntulupu (C) 

tumba, sepultura, hoyo del entierro 
	grave, tomb
		xapu-t (C, SD) 

tumbo (jicara muy grande)
	large gourd bowl
		tumbu(h) (SD) 
tuna
	prickly pear cactus fruit
		tu:nah (C) 

tunal (nagual, tonal) (alma, espiritu de uno)
	one's spirit, soul, companion spirit, alter-ego, nagual
		tu:nal (C, SD) 
		
tunalmil, milpa de apante
	summer cornfield, planted in summer (?)
		tu:nal-mi:l (SD) 

tunca, marrana, puerca
	sow (felame pig)
		siwa:kuyame-t (SD) 

tunca parida, marrana con su cria 
	sow with piglets
		chachapal (SD) 

tunco, marrano, puerco 
	pig, swine
		kuyame-t (C, SD) 

tunco, marrano macho 
	boar (male pig) 
		kupis (SD) 
tunco de monte, javali 
	peccary
		kohtan kuyame-t (SD) 
		ku(:)htan kuyame-t (C) 
tupido
	thick, dense
		netech (C) 

tuque, tocayo, tuco
	namesake, someone with the same name as someone else 
		-tuka:yuh (C) 
		tukuh (SD) 

turunca, hormiga tigra
	ant sp., "tiger" ant 
		ku:lutsi:ka-t (C, SD) 

tusa, taltusa
	gopher
		ta:ltu:san (C, SD) 

tusa (camisa de la mazorca) 
	corn husk
		tu:tumuch (C) 
		tutu:much (SD) 

tútano, tuétano
	marrow
		tutano(h) (SD) 

tzonchiche, sunchiche, quebrantahueso (zopilote cabeza roja) 
	vulture sp. (red-headed vulture)
		tsunchi:chi:l (C, SD) 
				
U
	
ujuxte (arbol)
	tree sp. (tree with edible seeds; ramon tree ?)
		uhux (C, SD) 

ujuxte (fruta)
	ujuxte tree's fruit (ramon ?)
		uhux-ti (C) 

uluzapote (clase de zapote)
	zapote sp. (a small zapote tree sp., long zapote fruit sp.) 
	ulutsapu-t (SD) 
	
uminexte, cafecillo (arbol)
	tree sp. (hard-wood tree, good for house beams) 
		u:minex (C) 
	
una vez
	once
		siyuhti (SD) 
	
unico
	the only one, unique
		se:chin (SD) 

unir, unirse, reunir, reunirse, poner juntos
	to meet, to join, to unite, to put together 
	se:nta:lia (C, SD) (t.v., r.v.)
	
uno, un/una
	one, a/an
		se: (C, SD) (numero, articulo indefinido)
uno por uno
	one by one
		sehse: ika (C) 

uno solo, solo uno
	only one, one only
		se:san (C) 
		sesan (C) 

untar
	to smear, to grease, to anoint
		mahma:waltia (C)
		ma:waltia (C) 

una
	fingernail, claw
		isti-t (C) 
		itsti-t (SD) 

unero 
	ingrown nail
		unyeroh (SD) 
		
urraca (pajaro)
	bird sp. (magpie ?) 
		orraka(h) (SD) 

usted, tu, vos
	you
		taha (C, SD) 

ustedes
	you pl.
		amehemet (SD) 
		an-ehemet (C) 

V
vaca
	cow
	turuh (SD) "vaca, res, toro"
	wa:ka:x (C) "vaca, ganado"

vaciar poco a poco, rebajar, mermar 
	to pour out, to empty a little, to reduce 
		taka:xawa (SD) 
	
vacunar
	to vaccinate
	-chiwa bakunar (SD) 
	
vago, hombre haragan
	bum, lazy man, vagabond
	ta:kapala (C) 
	
vaina
	pod, sheath, scabbard 
		bainah (C) 
valor
	value, worth; bravery, valor 
		balor (SD) 
	
valle
	valley
	bayeh (SD) 
	
vano, tilunco
	vain (?)
	tuluku(h) (SD) 
	
vara, carrizo
	reed, cane
	a:ka-t (C, SD) 
	
vara de tarro
	reed sp., cane sp.
	uhta-t (C) 
	
varón 
	male, man
	ukich (C, SD) 

vaso
	glass
	basu(h) (SD) 
	
vecino 
	neighbor
	-bechi (C) -besi:nuh (C, SD) 

veinte manos de maiz
	twenty "handfuls" of corn (i.e.100 ears of corn, five per handful)
	tsun-ti (SD) 

veinticinco centavos
	twenty-five cents
	peseta(h) (SD) 

vejiga
	bladder
	-a:xi:x-tekun (C) 

velar
	to watch, to guard (to stay awake)
	-chiwa belar (SD) 

vellos
	pubic hair
	-max (SD) 

venado
	deer
	masa:-t (C, SD) 
	masa:chin (SD) "venadito"
	masa:tsin (C) "venadito"

vendedor
	seller, vender
	bendedor (SD) 
	bendedora (SD) "vendedora"
	tanamakani (C) "vendedor, comerciante"

vender
	to sell
	namaka (C, SD) 
	tanamaka (C, SD) "vender (algo), estar vendiendo"

vender la mujer su cuerpo (ser prostituta)
	for a woman to sell her body (to be a prostitute)
	mu-tsinnamaka (SD)

venenar, adorar, besar
	to venerate, to adore, to kiss
	tate:nna:miki (C, SD) 

veneno
	poison
	benenu(h) (SD) 

venir
	to come
	wi:ts (C, SD) ('pres.') 
	wa:lah (C, SD) ('pret.') 
	wa:la(:)htuk (C, SD) ('perf.)

ventilar
	to blow (to rid corn, beans, rice of dust, chaff)
	ahka:na (C,  SD) "ventilar (soplar polvillo de maiz,  frijol, arroz)"
	kahkani (SD) "ventilar, soplar"  (?)

ver, mirar, visitar
	to see, to look, to visit
	ita, ida (C) ita (SD) 

verse, aparecerse 
	to be seen, to appear, to show up, to look like 
		ne:si (C) 

verano
	summer
	tu:nalku (C, SD) 

veraneño (caballito del diablo, libelula) 
	dragonfly
	pi:piyahtsin (C) 

verdad
	true, that's right
	te:hkiya (SD) "verdad, asi es"
	yehka:ya (C) "verdad, es verdad"

verbena, escobilla
	plant sp. (vervain, like a small palm, used for sweeping)
	eskobiya(h) (SD) 

verde
	green
	xuxuknah (SD) 
	xuxuwik (C, SD) "verde, crudo"

verdolaga
	purslane (edible plant)
	berdo:lake (C) 
	berdulaga(h) (SD) 

vergüenza (tener), avergonzarse, darse vergüenza
	to be embarrassed, to be ashamed
	i:xpi:na:wa (C) 	i:xpina:wa (SD) 

verruga, mezquino
	wart
	chipin (SD) 

verso, canción
	verse, song
	bersoh (SD) 

vestido
	dress
	-ladinah (SD) 

vestir, vestirse
	to dress
	(mu-)chiwa bestir (SD) 
	mu-tapatia (C) "vestirse, cambiarse"

vestir al muerto
	to dress/prepare a corpse
	take:ntia (SD) 

víbora cascabel
	rattlesnake
	kwechwah (C, SD) 

vicio
	vice, bad habit
		bisiu(h) (SD) 
vida
	life
	bidah (SD) 

vidrio
	glass
	bigriyu(h) (SD) 

viejita, anciana
	old woman
	lamahtsin (C)
	lama:chin (SD) 

viejito, anciano, viejo 
	old man
	chu:le-t, chu:le-t (SD) 
	-kuhkul (C, Comazagua)
	xu:re:-t (C) 

viejo; cf. viejito, anciano

viejo (un viejo)
	old (old man)
	weyaya kwerpoh (C) 

viejo (de cosas)
	old (of things)
	pala (C, SD) 

viejo (término para hablar a un viejito), señor (con respeto) 
	"sir" (term of address for an old man, respectful) 
	tutahwan (C) 

viento, aire, norte
	wind
	eheka-t (C, SD) 

vigilar
	to watch
	pachiwia (C, SD) 
	tahpiya (C) "vigilar, cuidar"

Virgen (la Virgen Maria)
	Virgin (the Virgin Mary) 
		labirhen (SD) 
		tuna:ntsin (C) 

viruela
	pox, smallpox
	birwelah (SD) 

visitante
	visitor
	bisitante (SD) 

visitar
	to visit
	ida, ita (C) "ver, visitar" pa:xa:lua (C, SD) "pasear, visitar"
vista
	sight
	tachalis (C) 

vivo (esta vivo)
	alive
	yu(:)ltuk (C, SD) 

volar
	to fly
	papataka (C, SD) "volar, revolar, revolotear, aletear" 
	pata:ni (C, SD) 

volarse (polvo, harina, etc.), soplarse
	to fly or blow away (e.g. dust, flower)
	mulu:ni (SD) 

volcan
	volcano
	bulkan, bolkan (SD) 

Volcan de Izalco (lugar, un volcan)
	Izalco Volcano (place, volcano name)
	lamahtepe:t (C) 

voltear, botar
	to turn over, to throw down/out
	i:xkwepa (C) 

volver, regresar
	to return
	mu-kwepa (C, SD) 

vomitar
	to vomit
	m-isu:ta (C) 
	m-i:suta (SD) 

voz, eco, garganta 
	voice, echo, throat 
	-kupak (C) 
	kupak (SD) 

voz baja (en)
	whisper, softly spoken
	swabehchin (SD) "en voz baja"

vuelta de gato (dar) (dar voltereta) 
	somersault
	mu-tsunyuli:xkwepa (C) 

vuelo
	flight
	bolidah (SD) 

vuelto, cambio
	change
	bwelto(h), welto(h) (SD) 

vulva, cuerpo
	vulva, body
	-we:yka (SD) 

X
xara (pajaro)
	bird sp.
	xara(h) (C) 

xaro, no cuexte, granudo (mal molido) (de masa) 
	grainy, gritty, poorly ground
	payaxnah (C, SD) 

xiguit del rio (monte, planta) 
	plant sp. (river plant) 
	a:xi:wi-t (SD) 

xinga, pozol, chingaste (asiento, sedimento) 
	dregs, grounds, sediment
	-tsinkach-yu (SD) 

xuchicoa, xuchicuo (culebra)
	snake sp.
	xu:chiku:wa-t (C, SD) 

Y

yagual (trapo en circulo para cargar o colocar cantaro, tinaja) 
	coiled cloth upon which water jugs and pots are placed 
	-tsunyawal  (SD)  "yagual para cargar/colocar  cantaro/tinaja en la cabeza"
	yawal (C, SD) 

yegua 
	mare
	ye:wah (C) 

yema
	yolk
	-tulti:ka (C) 
	-tultika (SD) 

yema del dedo 
	fingertip 
	-yemah-yu (SD)
 
yerbabuena, hierbabuena
	mint
	yerbabwena(h) (SD) 

yerno, novio
	son-in-law, boyfriend, groom 
	mu:n-ti (C, SD) 

yo
	I
	naha (C, SD) 
	na(h) (C, SD) (forma abreviada)

yuca
	sweet manioc
	kamuh (C, SD) 

yugo
	yoke
	yuguh (SD) 
	
yunta
	pair of work animals, team of animals 
		yuntah (SD) 

Z

zacate, paja (para casa)
	grass, straw (thatch)
	saka-t (C, SD) 

zacate de sabana, flor de zacate
	grass sp. (from which figurines and toys are made) 
	sakana:wal (C) 

zacaton (clase de zacate)
	grass sp.
	e:lusaka-t (C, SD) 

zafarse, arrancarse
	to come lose/off/out, to break of
	kupi:ni (C) 

zambo, guapote (pescado)
	fish sp., catfish
	puhul (C) 

zanahoria
	carrot
	sanaoria(h) (SD) 

zanate
	bird sp., grackel 
		tsana-t (C, SD) 

zancos
	stilts
	ku:tikxi (C) 

zancudo
	mosquito
	sankudu(h) (SD) 

zapatero
	shoemaker 
		sapatero(h) (SD) 

zapato
	shoe(s)
	sapatus (SD) 

zape!
	"shoo" (said to frighten cats away)
	sapeh (C, SD) 

zapote
	zapote (fruit, tree) 
		tsapu-t (C, SD) 
	(cf. tambien  sunsa, chicozapote, anona)

zapote de montana
	wild zapote 
		tsaputeteputen (C) 

zapote mico, matasano 
	zapote sp.
	na:watsapu-t (SD) 

zarandear, sacudir, menear 
	to winnow, to sift, to shake 
		tsehtselua (SD) 

zarco (persona con ojos claros) 
	person with light-colored eyes 
	ihi:x-mistun (C) 

zompopo (clase de hormiga)
	large ant sp. 
		tsumpu:pu (C, SD) 

zopilote, sope
	vulture, buzzard
	kusma (C) 
	sope (SD) 

zopilote cabeza roja, tzonchiche, sunchiche 
	vulture sp. (red-headed vulture) 
	tsunchi:chi:l (C, SD) 

zorro espin (puerco espin)
	porcupine
		witstakwatsin (C) 

zorrillo
	skunk
	sorriyuh (SD) 

zumbadora (culebra)
	snake sp. ("hisser")
	sumbadora(h) (SD) 

zunza, sunsa, sonzapote, sunza 
	zapote sp.
	tsuntsapu-t (C, SD) 

zurdo
	left-handed
	u:rduh (C) 

Chapter 7 Texts

7.0. Introduction
    
		Some typical folkloric texts are presented in this chapter from both Cuisnahuat and Santo Domingo de Guzman. These narratives are of interest because they illustrate Pipil oral literature show the language in use. Many of the examples cited in this book were taken from these texts, particularly those in the chapter on syntax (chapter 4).
	 	Each text bears a title and an abbreviation (or  letter  code) which identifies the texts from which examples are cited  in  the other chapters of this book.  These are:
	
	The Huracaneros      	=  H
	The Arch             	=  A 
	The Siguanaba        	=  S 
	The Sipitillo       	=  Sip 
	The King (Rey)       	=  R 
	The Nanahuatzin      	=  N

		Each sentence in the texts bears a number by which examples are cited.  These sentences are translated morpheme-by-morpheme to show which Pipil morphemes correspond to the forms of the interlinear English translation. A less literal, more narrative translation follows each text. Unassimilated Spanish words and phrases which appear in the Pipil texts are underlined and presented in Spanish orthography as it corresponds to local pronunciations. Nevertheless, Spanish infinitives which appear in the construction -chiwa + Spanish infinitive are written according to Pipil orthography in spite of the fact that they are not fully part of Pipil (cf. section 4.19). 
		The principal literary device of these texts is the paired couplet, called "difrasismo" (diphrasism) by some. This stylistic mechanism repeats the same notion in two distinct ways or presents two connected concepts coupled linguistically. Consider the example H-22:
		
	ka:n nemi ne plumas, ka:n naka-k ne i-uh-u:mi-yu?
	where is the feathers, where stay-PRET the its-PL-bone-INT POSS? 
	"Where are the feathers, where did its bones stay?" 

		What is essential is the parallelism; in the two (paired) clauses which have basically the same structure; "feathers" is parallel to "bones", and "is" to "stayed". In R-3, the parallelism is a total repetition of the same clause.  The sentence N-5 is a repetition of N-4 with additional elaboration.

Los Huracaneros
 (The Hurricaners)
(Santo Domingo de Guzman, June, 1975)
		
1) 	na  ni-k-elna:miki tay nech-ilwih nu-no:yah wan nu-tata-noy.
	I I-it-remember what me-told my-grandmother and my-grandfather.

2) 	En aquel tiempo wi:ts-et urakaneros tik se: te:chan de nombre chiltyupan.
	In that time come-PL hurricaners from a town of name Chiltiupan.

3) 	ke:man ina-t yehemet ka yawi panu urakan, segun yehemet ina-t ka tik ne eheka-t 	panu  ne: wi:ts-et hombres wan siwa:-tket al aire con tal de que wi:ts-et k-wi:ka-t 	e:lu-t pal yehemet ki-kwa-t.
	when say-PL they that go pass hurricane, according to they say-PL that in the 	wind-ABSOL pass there come-PL men and woman-PL on the wind with such of 	that come-PL it-take-PL corn for they it-eat-PL.

4) 	kunih ne mih-mi:l naka-k bien quebrado, bien aplastado, varias mazorcas 	desfigurados en un aspecto de, como buba.
	thus the PL-milpa remain-PRET very broken, very flattened, several ears of corn 	disfigured in an aspect of, like pustules.

5) 	yahane mazorcas k-wi:ka-t ne chiltyupanekos, segun nu-tata-noy wan nu-no:yah 	ki-chiw-ke-t kontar.
	That  ears  of corn it-take-PL the  Chiltiupanites,  according  my-grandfather and 	my-grandmother it-do-PRET-PL tell.

6) 	pero en ese casosiyuhti nemi-k se: ta:ka-t intelihenteh, wan mu-chiw-ki proponer 	ke era de mas tay wi:ts-et ki-chiwa-t nin tik tu18-te:chan.  
	but in that case once is-PRET a man-ABSOL intelligent, and REFLEX-do-PRET 	propose that was of much what come-PL it-do-PL here in our-town.

7) 	kunih yaha ki-chiw-ki se: trampah.
	then he it-do-PRET a trap.

8) 	tik ne trampah weli-k ki-kutamima se: siwa:pil como de dieciocho anos.
	in the trap can-PRET it-catch a girl as of eighteen years.

9) 	pero ne siwa:pil al mumentuh ke wets-ki ta:lchi inmediatamente mu-kwep-ki se: 	chumpipi.
	but the girl at the moment that fall-PRET on ground immediately REFLEX-turn-	PRET a turkey.

10) 	kunih ne ta:ka-t ke ki-kutamin k-its-ki ne chumpipi, k-wi:ka ka i-chan.
	then the man-ABSOL that it-caught it-grab-PRET the turkey, it-take to his-house.
11) 	inmediatamente ki-chiw-ki ordinar i-siwa:-w ma: ki-mik-ti ne chumpipi pal ki-	kwa-t.
	immediately it-do-Pret order his-wife-POSS that it-kill the turkey for it-eat-PL.

12) 	entonces ne i-siwa:-w ki-mik-tih ne chumpipi, ki-chiw-ki desplumar, wan ki-	chiw-ki ne komidah wan ki-kwah-ke-t. 
	then the his-wife-POSS it-die-CAUS the turkey, it-do-PRET pluck, and it-do-	PRET the food and it-eat-PRET-PL.

13) 	pero, tay yehemet mu-chiw-ke-t afihar ka ne i-uh-u:mi-yu ne chumpipi, ne plumas 	te: ki-kwah pe:lu.
	but, what they REFLEX-do-PRET-PL notice that theits-PL-bone-INT POSS the 	turkey, the feathers no it-ate dog.

14) 	entonces naka-k pensativo muchi ne hwamilya tayika te: ki-kwah pe:lu ne uh-	u:mi-t ni ke ne plumah.
	then remain-PRET thoughtful all the family because no it-ate dog the PL-bone-	ABSOL nor the feather.  
	
15) 	a los tres dias ka panu-tuk ne urakan wan ki-kwah-tiwi-t ne chumpipi, wa:lah-ke-t 	u:me ta:ka-met wan se: siwa:-t ki-te:mua-t.
	at the three days that pass-PERF the hurricane and it-eat-PERF-PL the turkey, 	came-PRET-PL two man-PL and one woman-ABSOL it-seek-PL.

16) 	kunih ahsi-ke-t i-chan ne ta:ka-t kah ki-kutamin-ki porke yehemet poco mas o 	menos ki-matia-t-a katka kah ki-kutamin. 
	then arrive-PRET-PL  his-house  the man-ABSOL  that  it-catch-PRET because 	they little more or less it-know-PL-already BEFORE who  itcaught.

17) 	pero yehemet te: ina-ke-t la verdad sino ahsi-ke-t a:n k-ilwih-ke-t si por 	casualidad k-its-tuk se: siwa:pil panu-k ka ne: cerca i-kal ne di:yah panu-k ne 	urakanasoh.
	but they no say-PRET-PL the truth rather arrivePRET-PL today him-say-PRET-	PL  if by chance it-see-PERF a girl pass-PRET by there near his-house the day 	pass-PRET the hurricane.

18) 	yaha tay ki-chiw-ki kontestar kah siwa:pil tesu k-its-tuk.
	he what it-do-PRET answer that girl no her-see-PERF.

19) 	lo que si ya ki-ahsi-k en campo libre se: chumpipi.
	that which yes he it-find-PRET on ground free a turkey.

20) 	kunih yaha k-its-ki wan k-wi:ka-k ka i-chan wan k-ilwih i-siwa:-w ma:  ki-miktih  	wan  ki-chiw-ki se: komidah wan ki-kwah-ke-t.
	then he it-grab-PRET and it-take-PRET to his-house and her-say his-wife-POSS 	that it-kill and it-do-PRET a meal and it-eat-PRET-PL.
21) 	kunih ina-ke-t los tres, "pwes ye:k tay  ti-k-chiw-tuk, pero bien naha ni-k-neki xi-	k-chiwa nu-wan ne hwabor".
	then say-PRET-PL the three, "well good what you-it-do-PERF, but very I I-it-	want IMP-it-do me-with the favor". 

22) 	xi-nech-ilwiti siquiera ka:n nemi ne plumas, ka:n naka-k ne  i-uh-u:mi-yu, pal ni-	yaw ni-k-ita ka:n nemi.
	IMP-me-show at least where is the feathers, where stay-PRET the it-PL-bone-INT 	POSS, so I-go I-it-see where is.

23)	kunih ne ta:ka-t yah-ki k-ilwitia.
	then the man-ABSOL go-PRET it-show.

24)	los tres ahsi-ke-t ka:n nemi ne plumas wan ne weh-we:suh ka te: ki-kwah-tuk 	pe:lu.
	the three arrive-PRET-PL where is the feathers and the PL-bone that no it-eat-	PERF dog.

25)	kunih ye(:)met ki-a:n-ke-t ne we:suh, ki-chiw-ke-t se: punyuh wan ki-tahtan-ke-t 	se: bateya wan se: buen punyuh a:-t wan se: karreton ilerah2, ki-mi:n-ke-t ka 	ikahku.
	then they it-gather-PRET-PL the bone, it-do-PRET-PL a bunch and it-request-	PRET-PL a tray and a good bunch water-ABSOL and a spool thread, it-throw-	PRET-PL to up.

26) 	al ratito tikwini.
	in little while thunder.

27) 	ka:n tikwini-k yaha k-ita-k ka maya ki-mak bweltah. 
	where thunder-PRET he it-see-PRET only it-gave turn.

28)  	en la vuelta que ki-maka mu-chiw-ke-t elebar wan  mu-chiw-ke-t desapareser.
	in the turn that it-give REFLEX-do-PRET-PL rise and REFLEX-do-PRET-PL.

29) 	kieneh k-wi:ka-ke-t ne siwa:pil porke ne ta:ka-t en el momento que k-ita-k ke ki-	chiw-ke-t la prueba k-ita-k perfectamente ka se: siwa:pil hermosa ki:s-ki  tik ne 	we:sus  wan ne plumah.
	well it-take-PRET-PL the girl because the man-ABSOL in the moment that it-see-	PRET that it-do-PRET-PL the proof it-see-PRET perfectly that a girl beautiful 	leave-PRET from the bones and the feathers. 
		
30)  	yahika ne urakaneros en realidad wi:ts-et de chiltyupan, wi:ts-et k-wi:ka-t e:lu-t 	pal ki-kwa.
	therefore the hurricaners in reality come-PL from Chiltiupan, come-PL it-take-PL 	corn for it-eat.

31) 	pero kunih mu-chiw-ke-t hregar porke ki-miktih-ke-t se: siwa:pil wan ki-kwah-	ke-t.
	but then REFLEX-do-PRET-PL screw because her-kill-PRET-PL a girl and it-	eat-PRET-PL.

32) 	kieneh nech-chiw-tuk kontar nu-tata-noy wan nu-no:yah, wan esta fecha siempre 	panu urakan pero tehemet te:-ya ke:man ti-k-ita-ke-t su wal-ku-wetsi se:.
	thus me-do-PERF tell my-grnd-father and my-grandmother, and this date always 	pass hurricane but we no-now when we-it-see-PRET-PL if DIR-head-fall one.

33) 	yahika a:n ni-k-chiwa kontar nu-amiguh pal k-wi:ka como recuerdo ini kwentuh.
	therefore today I-him-do tell my-friend so it-take as remembrance this story.

The Hurricaners
(Los Huracaneros, English narrative translation)
	
		(1) I remember what my grandmother and my grandfather told me. (2) In those days there came "hurricaners" from a town called Chilteopan. (3) When they say there is going to be a big storm, so they say, in the wind that comes by there come men and women in the wind such that they come to carry off ears of corn for them to eat. (4) Thus the milpas were left broken, quite flattened, with many ears of corn disfigured with a look like pustules. (5) Those were the ears of corn that the Chilteopaners took, according to my Grandfather and my grandmother.  
		(6) But in this case, once there was a smart man who held that what the came to do in our town was too much. (7) So he made a trap. (8) In the trap he was able to catch a girl of about eighteen. (9) But at the moment she fell to the ground, immediately the girl changed into a turkey. (10) Then the man who caught and grabbed the turkey took it to his house. (11) Immediately he ordered his wife to kill the turkey so they could eat it. (12) So his wife killed the turkey, plucked it, and made the food, and they ate it. (13) But what they noticed was that the dog did not eat the turkey's bones and feathers. (14) Then the whole family was left puzzled because the dog wouldn't eat the bones or the feathers. (15) On the third day after the storm had passed and they had eaten the turkey, there came two men and a woman to look for it. (16) They arrived at the house of the man who had caught it because they more or less already knew who had caught it. (17) But  the did not tell the truth, but rather arrived asking if  by chance he had seen a girl pass near his house the day of the big storm. (18) What he answered was that he had not seen a girl. (19) What he had found on open ground was a turkey. (20) Then he caught it and took it home and told his wife to kill it and make the food, and they ate it. (21) Then the three said, "Well, what you have done is all right, but I want you to do me a favor. (22) Show me, at least, where the feathers are, where the bones were left, so I can go see where they are. (23) Then the man went to show them. (24) The three came to where the feathers and bones were that the dog had not eaten. (25) Then they picked up the bones, made a pile, and asked for a trough and a lot of water and a spool of thread, and they throw it into the air. (26) Soon it thundered. (27) When it thundered he saw that it just turned around. (28) In the turn that it made it raised and disappeared. (29) Actually, they took the girl because at the moment the man saw that they tried this, he saw perfectly (well) that a beautiful girl came out of the bones and feathers.  
		(30) So, the "hurricanes" in reality come from Chilteopan; they come to take ears of corn to eat. (31) But they were screwed up, because they killed the girl and ate her. (32) That's what my grandfather and grandmother told me, and big storms always come, but we never saw if one came to fall. (33) So, today I am telling this  to my friend  so  he can take this  story  with  him  as  a remembrance.

El Arco
(The Arch)
(Santo Domingo de Guzman, July, 1975)

1) 	a:n trece de julio y dia de San Antonio, nin ni-nemi nu-chan ti-se:n-nemi-t a la par 	wan se: nu-amiguh, wi:ts ka wehka.
	today thirteenth of July and day of St. Anthony, here I-am my-house we-together-	are-PL on the level with a my-friend, come from far.

2) 	yaha  ki-neki  ki-kaki cuentos tay tik  nu-te:chan  ki-chiw-tuk suseder.
	he it-want it-hear stories what in my-town it-do-PERF happen.

3) 	a:n ni-yaw ni-k-chih kontar ka nin nemi se: chu:le-t  ke yaha propio yaha nech-	ilwih-tuk  ka i-na:n wan i-te:ku ne:  tik  arkuh nemi-t.
	today I-go I-it-do tell that here is an old man who he himself he me-tell-PERF that 	his-mother and his-father in arch is-PL.

4) 	yahika ke:man yaha mayana, ina i-se:l, "por el ultimo ni-k-mati ka:n nemi nu-	te:ku, ka:n nemi nu-na:n". 
	therefore when he hunger, say him-self, "at the last I-it-know where is my-father, 	where is my-mother". 

5) 	ni-yaw ni-k-tahtani tay ni-k-kwa, porque yehemet ki-piya-t deber nech-maka-t a:n 	ka ni-mayana.
	I-go I-it-request what I-it-eat, because they it-have-PL must me-give-PL now that 	I-hunger.

6) 	kunih ki-kwih i-kalabo:s wan i-ma:ta-w, yawi ka ne: arkuh. 
	then it-grabbed his-machete and his-net-POSS, go to there.

7) 	ahsi-k ne: tik ne pwertah, mu-ketsa a media puerta, k-ilwia, "nu-na:n, nu-te:ku, x-	al-ki:sa, nah ni-mayana, ni-k-neki ni-ta-kwa".
	arrive-_PRET there in the door, REFLEX-stand at half door, it-say, "my-mother, 	my-father, IMP-DIR-leave, I I-hunger, I-it want I-something-eat". 

8) 	al ratito ki:sa ne siwa:-t.
	after a while leave the woman-ABSOL.

9) 	"ti-mayana, no:y?"
	"you-hunger, boy?"

10)	"ni-mayana nu-na:n; yahika ni-wi:ts". 
	"I-hunger my-mother; therefore I-come".

11) 	"kunih xi-k-kwa siquiera pan porke tamal te: kanah; xi-k-kwa pan pal panu mu-	maya."
	"then IMP-it-eat anyway bread because tortilla no is; IMP-it-eat bread so pass 	your-hunger."

12) 	kunih yaha k-ilwia, "ti-k-piya we:y pan?"
	then he her-say, "you-it-have lots bread?"

13) 	"ah, pan nemi we:y".
	"Oh, bread is lots".

14) 	"kunih x-al-kwi uk se:yuk tortah"; "nah ni-k-ta:lia tik nu-ma:ta-w pal ni-k-kwa 	mu:sta".
	then IMP-DIR-grab even other bun"; "I I-it-place in my-net-POSS for I-it-eat 	tomorrow."

15) 	kunih ne i-na:n kalaki.
	then the his-mother enter.

16) 	mientras ne i-na:n kalaki k-al-wi:ka mas pan yaha pe:h-ki ki-kwa ne tortah ki-	maka-tuk i-na:n.
	while the his-mother enter it-DIR-take more bread he begin-PRET it-eat the bun 	it-give-PERF his-mother. 

17)	k-al-wi:ka i-na:n uk na:wi pan ombron.
	it-DIR-take his-mother other four bread large.

18) 	ki-ta:lih tik i-ma:ta-w wan wa:lah.
	it-placed in his-net-POSS and came.

19) 	pero la fregada, tay orah ehku-k i-chan k-i:xtia tik i-ma:ta-w tamanos plastas, i-	kwit turuh, tesu pan.
	but the bitch, what hour arrive-PRET his-house it-remove from his-net-POSS 	large cowpies, its-excrement cow, not bread.

20)	kunih ina, "ah jodido".
	then say, "oh son-of-a-bitch". 
21) 	"entonces ne tesu tamal ne tay ni-k-kwah-tuk,  ni ke pan, mas bien i-kwit turuh ni-	k-kwah."
	"then this no tortilla this what I-it-eat-PERF, nor bread, but rather its-excrement 	cow I-it-ate." 

22) 	"desde luego ka nin tik nu-ma:ta-w oh-ombron plastas pal turuh wi:ts, yaha ni-k-	kwah, tesu pan."
	"certainly in here in my-net-POSS PL-big cowpies of cow come, this I-it-ate, not 	bread."

23) 	"pero ke:man ni-yaw ni-mu-kwepa ni-yawi ni-yaw ni-k-ahwa ne nu-na:n tayika 	yaha nech-maka-tuk."
	"but when I-go I-REFLEX-turn I-go I go I-her-scold the my-mother because she 	me-give-PERF."

24) 	"yehemet ka ki-piya-t tumin."
	"they that it-have-PL money."

25) 	yahika ne: yah-ke-t ki-maka-t fin tik arkuh.
	therefore there go-PRET-PL it-give-PL end in arch.

26) 	"wan nah te: nech-ahkaw-ilih-ke-t tumin, maya pobresah."
	"and I no me-leave-APPLIC-PRET-PL money, only poverty."

27) 	"nah su te: ni-tekiti, te: ni-ta-kwa."
	"I, if no I-work, no I-something-eat."

28) 	"yahika wak ni-yaw ni-mu-kwepa ni-yawi ka arkuh, ni-yaw ni-k-nu:tsa nu-te:ku 	pal ni-k-ahwa."
	"therefore when I-go I-REFLEX-return I-go in arch, I-go I-him-speak my-father 	so I-him-scold." 
	
29) 	yaha propio ne chu:le-t nech-chiw-tuk kontar.
	he himself the old man me-do-PERF tell.

30) 	yaha i-tu:kay Lorenzo Lopez.
	he his-name Lorenzo Lopez.

31) 	ki-piya-tu-ya u:me i-pila-wan.
	it-have-PERF-IMPERF two his-son-PL POSS.

32) 	k-ilwia los dos pi:pil, "taha ti-mayordomoh, pero maya taha". 
	it-say the two boys, "you you-steward, but only you".

33) 	"mu-manuh mas vivo; yaha alvolario."
	"your-brother more smart; he wizard."
34) 	"yaha oficio; yaw a:n weli-t."
	"this position; go now can-PL."

35)	kieneh k-ilwia katka ne i-pila-wan.
	thus him-say BEFORE the his-son-PL POSS.

36) 	al fin ke:man yaha ki-neki miki ka mayana wan te: ki-piya, k-i:xtia se: espehuh 	tay orah takipi:ni.
	at the end when he it-want die that (he) hunger and no it-have, it-remove a mirror 	what hour lightening.

37)  	"ah diabloh, x-al-ki:sa, xi-nech-mikti!"
	"oh devil, IMP-DIR-come out, IMP-me-kill!"

38) 	ta-ta:wilua wan i-espehuh, pero ne tesu yaha i-destinuh; te: ke:man ki-miktih.
	REDUP-shine with his-mirror, but this no that his-fate; no when him-kill. 

The Arch
(El Arco)
	
		(1) Today, the 13th of July and St. Anthony's day, I am here in my house together with my friend who comes from far away. (2) He likes to hear stories about what has taken place in my town. (3) Today I'm going to tell him that there is an old man here who himself has told me that his mother and his father are there in the arch. (There is a natural rock-arch very near Santo Domingo de Guzman.)  
		(4) So when he was hungry, he said to himself, "Finally I know where my father is, where my mother is". (5) I'm going to ask them for something to eat, because they have to give it to me now that I'm hungry. (6) Then he grabbed his machete and his net-bag, and went there to the arch. (7) He came there to the door, stood in the middle of the door, and said, "mother, father, come out, I'm hungry, I want to eat". (8) In a little while the woman came out. (9) "Are you hungry, boy?" (10) "I'm hungry, mother; that's why I've come." (11) Then at least eat some bread, because there are no tortillas; eat bread so your hunger will go away." (12) Then he said, "Do you have lots of bread?" (13) "Oh, there's a lot of bread." (14) "Then bring me some more sandwiches; I'll put them in my bag to eat tomorrow." (15) Then his mother went inside. (16) While his mother was going in to bring more bread, he began to eat the sandwich his mother had given him. (17) His mother brought four more big buns. (18) He put them in his bag and left.  
		(19) But the bitch, when he got home he took big cow pies out of his bag, cow manure, not bread. (20) Then he said, "oh son-of-a bitch". (21) "So this was not a tortilla I have eaten, nor bread, rather it was cow shit that I ate. (22) Therefore, here in my bag are big cow pies; that's what I ate, not bread. (23) But when I go back there, I'm going to chew out my mother for what she has given me. (24) They are the ones who have money. (25) That's why they went there to end up in the arch. (26) And they didn't leave me money, just poverty. (27) As for me, if I don't work, I don't eat. (28) Therefore when I go back to the arch, I'm going to speak to my father to chew him out."  
		(29) The old man himself has told me this. (30) His name was Lorenzo Lopez. (31) He had two sons. (32) He said to the two boys, "You are a steward, but only you. (33) Your brother is smarter; he is a wizard. (34) These are your professions; go and learn them." (35) This is what he told them. (36) Finally, when he wanted to die because he was hungry and because he had nothing, he got out a mirror while it was lightning. (37) "Oh devil, come out, kill me!" (38) He shined with his mirror, but that was not to be his fate; he never killed him.   

La Siguanaba
(The Siguanaba)
(Santo Domingo de Guzman, June, 1975)

1)	nu-amiguh i-gustuh na ni-k-chiwa kontar cuentos de cosas ke chiw-ki suseder nin 	tik nu-te:chan. my-friend his-pleasure I I-him-do tell stories of things that do-	PRET happen here in my-town.

 2) 	a:n ni-k-chih kontár una cosa ke nu-tatanoy nech-chiw-ki kontár.
	now I-him-do tell a thing that my-grandfather me-do-PRET tell.
	
3)  	ya  nech-ilwih  ka nin tik tu-te:chan kah de mala suerte ki-mu:tia-t.			he me-told that here in our-town that from bad luck him-scare-PL.
	
4) 	ki:sa se: animál ke yehemet k-ilwia-t "tsun-tekuma-t". 
	leave an animal that they it-say-PL "skull-ABSOL".

5) 	yahika nu-tatanoy nech-chiw-ki akonsehar kah te: ma: ni-nehnemi tayuwa 	porke 	ta-mu:tia-t.
	therefore  my-grandfather  me-do-PRET counsel that not that  I-walk night 	because something-scare-PL.

6) 	ke:man yaha yawi katka derechoh ne kayeh, yah ki:s-ki i-i:xpan siwa:na:wal.
	when he go BEFORE straight the street, he leave-PRET her-before Siguanaba.

7) 	ya klaroh k-ita-k kah wi:ts ne siwa:-t, pero en ese rato yaha k-i:xmat-ki, k-	ita-k 	yaha se:  siwa:-t i-tu:kay Lionah.
	he clear it-seePRET that come the woman-ABSOL, but in that moment he her-	recognize-PRET, her-see-PRET a woman-ABSOL her-name Leonarda.
	
8) 	kunih yaha ki-nu:ts-ki.
	then he her-speak-PRET.

9) 	k-ilwia, "ka:n ti-yah-tuk, Lionah?"							her-say, "where you-go-PERF, Leonarda?"
	
10) 	"ah, ni-pa:xa:lua ke:n-ake:n taha ti-ki:s-tuk ti-pa:xa:lua."
	"oh, I-walk just-like you you-leave-PERF you-walk."

11)	"se me afigura", k-ilwih yaha, "tesu ti-Lionah".
	"it me seems", it-say he, "no you-Leonarda".

12) 	"tayika te:, naha ni-Lionah."
	"why not, I I-Leonarda."

13) 	"pero ni-k-chiw-ki sentir kalor, ni-ki:s-ki ni-pa:xa:lua se: nu-ra:tuh 	nu:san."
	"but I-it-do-PRET feel hot, I-leave-PRET I-walk a my-while alone."
14)	kunih ne ta:ka-t tesu tan miedoso.
	then the man-ABSOL no so afraid.

15) 	k-i:xtih i-sinidor al descuido.
	it-remove his-sash on sly.
			
16)	 ke:man ne siwa:na:wal ki-chiw-ki sentir ki-maka-tuk dos vueltas wan k-ilpih.
	when the Siguanaba it-do-PRET feel it-give-PERF two turns and her-tied.

17)  	ka:n k-ilpih, k-ilwia, "bueno a:n ti-yawi-t ka mu-chan ti-yawi-t ti-k-ita-t su cierto 		kah taha ti-Lionah".
	where her-tied, her-say, "OK, now we-go-PL to your house we-go-PL we-it-		see-PL if true that you you-Leonarda."

18) 	"pues, ti-yawi-t ti-k-ita-t ka nah ni-kalaki nu-chan."
	"well, we-go-PL we-it-see-PL that I I-enter my-house."

19)  	k-wi:ka-k ne siwa:-t i-chan ne-yuk siwa:-t i-tukay Lionah wan Lionah ki-			chiw1-tuk  sentir  suhsul sesek.
	her-take-PL the woman-ABSOL her-house the other woman-ABSOL her-			name Leonarda and Leonarda it-do-PRET feel much cold.

20) 	yahika mu-kets-tuk peyna bien tayuwa ki-tatia ti-t pal panu i-sesek.
	therefore REFLEX-raise-PERF early very night it-burn fire-ABSOL so pass 		her-cold.

21) 	kunih, ke:man ahsi-k ne ta:ka-t ke k-wi:ka ne siwa:-t ilpih-tuk wan i-sinidor, 		k-ilwia, "nana Lionah".
	then, when arrive-PRET the man-ABSOL that who her-take the woman 			ABSOL tie-PERF with his-sash, it-say, "Miss Leonarda".

22)  	"senor", k-ilwih kal-ihti-k, "uni ti-nemi?"
	"Sir", it-say house-inside-in, "that you-are?"

23) 	"nikan ni-nemi, senor; tay ti-k-neki?"
	"here I-am, sir; what you-it-want?"

24) 	"ah, nin n-al-wi:ka se: siwa:-t t-ina kah taha."
	"oh, her I-DIR-take a woman-ABSOL something-say that you".

25) 	"ka ne: ni-k-na:mik tik kayeh ka ne: kahkuwik."
	"to there I-her-met in street in there above."

26) 	"ni-k-ilwia, ‘Dona Leonarda, ka:n ti-yaw’?"
	"I-her-say, Dona Leonarda, where you-go?"
		
27) 	"'ah,  ni-ki:s-tuk ni-pa:xa:lua nu:san ke:n-ake:n taha ti-ki:s-tuk ti-pa:xa:lua.'"
	"'oh, I-leave-PERF I-walk alone just-like you you-leave-PERF you-walk.'"

28) 	"'taha tesu ti-lionah', ni-k-ilwih."
	"'you no you-Leonarda', I-her-said."
			
29) 	"'tayika te:, ni-Lionah.'"
	"why not, I-Leonarda."

30) 	"al descuido ni-k-ilpih wan nu-sinidor wan nin n-al-wi:ka pal ni-wi:ts ni-k-		ita su cierto ka tesu ti-nemi."
	"on sly I-her-tied with my-sash and here I-DIR-take so I-come I-it-see if 			true that no you-are."
		
31) 	"tayika te:, nah nin (ni-)nemi, mas bien ni-sek-miki."
	"why not, I here I-am, but rather I-cold-die."

32) 	"yahika ni-mu-kets-ki ni-k-tatia ti-t pal ni-mu-tutu:nia."
	Therefore I-REFLEX-arise-PERF I-it-burn fire-ABSOL so I REFLEX-heat."
		
33) 	"naha tesu ni-ki:s-tuk, ni-mahmawi."
	"I no I-leave-PERF, I-fear."

34) 	kunih ne siwa:-t pe:h-ki mu-tih-tila:na. 
	then the woman-ABSOL begin-PRET REFLEX-PL-hang.

35) 	ki-chiwa hwersah wan k-ilwia, "xi-nech-sutuma".						it-do force and him-say, "IMP-me-untie."
		
36) 	"nah ni-k-neki-ya ni-yaw."
	"I I-it-want-already I-go."
		
37) 	de la gran hwersah ke ki-chiwa-t saber ke:n ki-chiw-ki ne ta:ka-t ki-ka:xantih.
	from the big force that it-do-PL who knows how it-do-PRET the man-ABSOL 		her loosen.

38)	ka:n ka:xani-k kunih weli-k sutumi-k, ki:sa mu-talua.
	where loosen-PRET then can-PRET untie-PRET, leave REFLEX-run.

39)	pero antes de que ya mu-sutuma tay ora pe:h-ki ki-chih  hwersah pal yawi, 	mu-chiwa fihar ne ta:ka-t ka ne siwa:-t ne i-ih-ikxi tesu i-ih-ikxi ke:n pal henteh.
	But before that she REFLEX-untie what hour begin-PRET it-do force so go, 	REFLEX-do notice the man that the woman-ABSOL the her-PL-feet no her-	PL-feet like of people.

40) 	sino ke i-ih-ikxi puro i-ih-ikxi tihlan.
	but that her-PL-feet pure its-PL-feet chicken.

41) 	kunih ina-k yaha, "ini tesu ye:k".
	then say-PRET he, "this no good."

42) 	"ini nu-kuhkul."
	"this my-boogyman."

43) 	"pero ni-k-chiw-ki hregar, porke ni-k-ilpih." 							"but I-her-do-PRET screw, because I-her-tied."

44)  	mu-kwep-ki k-ita tik i-ka:rah;  k-ita-k tuh-tumak i-i:x,  tesu ke:n i-i:x henteh.		REFLEX-turn-PRET her-see in her-face; it-see-PRET PL-large her-eye, no 	like his-eye people.

45) 	kunih yaha algo mu-mu:tih.
	then he somewhat REFLEX-feared.

46) 	pero, ki-piya-k balor, pero hwersah ki-chiw-ki hwaltar.
	but, it-have-PRET valor, but force it-do-PRET lack.

47) 	ka:n mu-sutun ne siwa:-t ki:s-ki mu-talua, yah mu-chiw-ki arrepentir.
	where REFLEX-untied the woman-ABSOL leave-PRET REFLEX-run, he 	REFLEX-do-PRET repent.

48) 	"na ni-yaw ni-mu-kwepa ni-k-ilpia."
	"I I-go I-REFLEX-turn I-her-tie."

49) 	ki:sa mu-talua i-ipan, pero de nada sirvio.
	leave REFLEX-run her-before, but for nothing served.

 50)	ya mu-taluh asta ahsi-k te:n a:-t, mu-kumin-ki tik se: ombron posah.
	she REFLEX-ran until arrive-PRET edge river-ABSOL, REFLEX-throw-PRET 	in a big pool.

51) 	ka:n mu-kumin-ki tik ne posah, ne: k-i:x-puluh; te:-ya k-ita-k; ne: puliwi-k ne 	siwa:-t.	
	when REFLEX-throw-PRET in the pool, there her-face-lono-longer her-see-	PRET; there disappear-PRET the woman-ABSOL.

52) 	naha nech-chiw-ki kontar nu-tatanoy kah esas cosas, pues ke:man yaha hoben ki-	kak-tuk kah ki-chiw-tuk suseder tik te:chan.
	I  me-do-PRET tell my-grandfather that those things, well when  he young it-	hear-PERF that it-do-PERF happen in town.

53)  	yahika a:n nu-amiguh ni-k-chih kontar pal ki-mati ka  nemi tsun-tekuma-t wan 	nemi siwa:na:wal pal kah te: ki-piya balor ki-mu:tia.
	therefore now my-friend I-it-do tell so it-know that is "skull-ABSOL" and is 	Siguanaba so that no it-have valor it-fear.

The Siguanaba
(La Siguanaba, Santo Domingo de Guzman, June, 1975)

	(1) My friend likes me to tell him stories about the things that have taken place in my town. (2) Now I'm going to tell him something that my grandfather told me. (3) He told me that in our town unfortunately one can be frightened. (4) There's a creature they call the "skull". So, my grandfather advised me not to walk at night because they terrify you. (6) When he was going down the street the Siguanaba (a siren-like supernatural being in the form of a woman) came out in front of him. (7) He saw clearly that the woman was coming but at that time he recognized her, (thinking that) he saw a woman named Leonarda. (8) Then he spoke to her. (9) He said, "Where have you gone, Leonarda?" (10) "Oh, I'm taking a walk just as you have come out to take a walk.” (11) "It seems to me", he said, "You are not Leonarda". (12) "Sure, I'm Leonarda." (13) "But I was hot, so I also came out to walk for a while." (14) Then the man was not so afraid. (15) He took of his belt on the sly. (16) When the Sigunaba noticed, he had wrapped it around her twice and tied her. (17) When he tied her, he said, "OK, now let's go to your house to see if it's true that you are Leonarda". (18) "OK, let's go see that I will enter my house." (19) He took the woman to the house of the other woman named Leonarda and (this) Leonarda had been very cold. (20) So she had gotten up late at night to light the fire to get over being cold. (21) Then, when the man arrived who brought the woman tied with his belt, he said, "Dona Leonarda". (22) "Senor", she said from inside, "is that you?" (23) "Here I am, senor, what do you want?" (24) "Oh, I bring a woman here who says that she is you." (25) "I ran into her there in the street, up there." (26) "I said, 'Dona Leonarda, where are you going?'." (27) "'Oh, I've gone for a walk like you have.'" (28)"'You're not Leonarda', I told her." (29) "'sure, I'm Leonarda.'" (30) "On the sly I tied her up with my belt and I'm bringing her here to see if it's true that it's not you." (31) "Sure, I'm here, but I'm cold." (32) "That's what I got up to light the fire to warm up." (33) "I haven't left; I'm afraid to."  
		(34) Then the woman began to lurch. (35) She struggled and said, "Let me go!" (36) "I want to go now." (37) In their struggle, it's not clear what she did to make the man loosened her. (38) When it was loosened, she was able to get untied; she took off running. (39) But before she got untied, when she began to struggle to go, the man noticed that the woman's feet were not like people's feet, (40) rather they were really chicken feet. (41) Then he said, "This is not good". (42) "This is a spook." (43) "But I messed her up because I tied her up." (44) He turned around to look her in the face and he saw her large eyes, not like people's eyes. (45) Then he was a little scared. (46) But, he was brave, but he had no strength. (47) When the woman got away and took off running, he regretted it. (48) "I'm going to tie her up again." (49) He took off running after her, but it was no use. (50) She ran until she got to the edge of the river and she throwed herself into a big pool. (51) When she threw herself into the pool there he lost (sight of) her and couldn't see her any longer; there the woman disappeared. (52) My grandfather told me these things that when he was young he heard happen in this town. (53) Therefore, now; I told my friend so that he will know that the "skull" exists and that the Siguanaba exists, for whoever is not brave will be frightened.

El Sipitillo
(Santo Domingo de Guzmn, July, l975)

1) 	ne sipiti:yuh ni-k-i:xmati nu:san ka ki:sa tah-tayuwa nu:san wan nu:san a las doce 	de la noche.
	the  Sipitillo I-it-know also that leave PL-night also and also  at twelve of the 	night.
	
2)	 ne sipiti:yuh chikitik-chin ma: tumak ne i-xumpe.
	 the Sipitillo small-DIMIN but big the his-huge.
	
3) 	tesu ombron, tesu ko:h-tik, chikitik-chin puru henteh.
	no big, no tall, small-DIMIN pure people.
	
4) 	kah ki-chih kombenir ki-chih ganar nu:san.
	who him-do pays it-do gain also.
	
5) 	axta ki-maka tutu:nik ke:man kin-mu:tia.
	even it-give fever when them-scare.
	
6) 	ya:ne (=yahane) k-ilwia-t sipiti:yut.
	that him-say-PL Sipitillo.

7) 	varios tesu k-i:xmat-ke-t ma:  ka ki-chih kombenir ki:sa,  ki:sa con la noche, las 	doce de la noche, tayuwa.
	several no it-recognize-PRET-PL no that it-do pay to leave, to leave with the 	night, at twelve of the night.
	
8) 	ne siyuhti ne nu-piltsin ki-mu:tih ka ya:h-ki ki-mu:tia tsana-t ne: tik ne mi:l.
	the once the my-son him-scared that go-PRET it-scare grackel-ABSOL there in 	the cornfield.

9) 	yahika ki-mu:tih-a, ina k-ita-k ne sipiti:yuh, ina. 
	therefore him-scared-already, say him-see-PRET the Sipitillo.

10) 	su:siu el pelu:du wan tumak i-xumpe, wan chikitik-chin.
	dirty the hairy (one) and huge his-hat, and small-DIMIN.

11) 	yahika ya k-i:xmati nu:san ne sipiti:yuh.
	therefore he him-know also the Sipitillo.

12) 	ki-mu:tih.
	him-scared.

13) 	axta kukuya-k, ki-mak tutu:ni-k.
	even become ill-PRET, him-gave fever.

14) 	apenas ni-k-pahtih, ni-k-mat reme:dyuh.
	scarcely I-him-cured, I-it-knew remedy.

The Sipitillo

		(The sipitillo is a tom-thumb like supernatural being, with traits that suggest the headless horseman.) 
		(1) The sipitillo, I know him too; he comes out at night too, at midnight.  (2) The sipitillo is very small but his hat is gigantic.  (3) He is not big, not tall; he's very little, but pure human. (4) Whoever it pays, can come out ahead, also. 
		(5) He even gives a fever to those he frightens. (6) That one is called "the Sipitillo". (7) Many haven't known that it doesn't pay to go out at night, at midnight.  
		(8) Once my son was terrified when he was going to frighten off grackels there in the corngfield. (9) So he was frightened; he sasy he saw the sipitillo. (10) He was dirty, hairy, and his hat was giant, and he was very small. (11) That's how he came to know the sipitillo also. (12) He was terrified. (13) He even got sick and had a fever. (14) I could barely cure him; I knew the cure.

Historia de un Rey
(The Story of a King
(Cuisnahuat, 1976)

1) 	a:xa:n katka se: re:y,  ki-piya se: i-te:lpu:ch-tsin.
   	now BEFORE a king, him-have a his-son-DIMIN.

2)	ke:n nemi i-se:l-tsin  ne i-te:lpu:ch-tsin, re:y ki-tasuhta, ki-tasuhta.
   	since is his-alone-DIMIN the his-son-DIMIN, king him-love, him-love.
  
3)	ki-kuw-ilia ne i-sapatus de oroh, ki-kuh-ki ne i-sapatus de oroh.
   	him-buy-APPLIC the his-shoes of gold, it-buy-PRET the his-shoes of gold.

4)	pero, kenemeh tesu m-a:wiltia ka afuera, mu-chih-ki entristesér.
   	but, since no REFLEX-play in outside, REFLEX-do-PRET sadden.

5)	ne: i-se:l-tsin  ki-piya-t;  pe:h-ki  kukuya,  pe:h-ki kukuya.
   	there his-alone-DIMIN him-have-PL; begin-PRET to get sick, begin-PRET to get 		sick.

6)	k-ilwia ne i-na:n, ma: t-i:na-kan ne reynah, k-ilwia ne i-na:n,"ti-yu-t ti-yawi-t         	ti-pa:xa:lua ne:pa ka ku:h-tan".
   	him-say the his-mother, let's we-say-IMP PL the queen, him say the his-mother, 		"we-go-PL we-go-PL we-walk there in woods".

7)	"ti-yu-t  ti-yawi-t a ver su ti-mu-chiwa  alegrá chupi."
   	"we-go-PL we-go-PL to see if you-REFLEX-do rejoice some."

8) 	pwes yah-ke-t, ki-wi:ka-k.
   	well go-PRET-PL, him-take-PRET.

9)	ne:pa  ka se: yanurah, ahsi-ke-t chan se: anciano, chan se: xu:re:-tsín.
   	there in a plain, arrive-PRET-PL at an old man, at an old man-DIMIN.

10)	ne: nemi ne xu:re:-tsín; k-ilwia, "xi-kalagi, señora, xi-kalaki", k-ilwia.
   	there is the old man-DIMIN; her-say, "IMP-enter, señora, IMP-enter", her-say.

11)	ki-maka-k pal mu-ta:lia pak se:  tru:suh-tsín; "xi-mu-ta:li", k-ilwia.
   	her-give-PRET for REFLEX-sit on a block-DIMIN; "IMP-REFLEX-sit", her-say.
 
12) 	ne reynah bi:dah ki-mati ka ki-chih-ke-t atendér.
  	the queen good it-know that him-do-PRET-PL attend.

13) 	mu-chih-ki alegrár.
	REFLEX-do-PRET rejoice.

14)	pwes, k-ilwia ne xu:re:-tsín,"ne mu-te:lpu:ch-tsin kukuya, kukuya".
   	well, her-say the old man-DIMIN, "the your-son-DIMIN sick, sick".

15) 	"e:he", k-ilwia, "kukuya".
   	"yes", him-say, "sick".

16)	"muchi ne doctores panu-tiwi-t a ver asu ki-pahtia-t; tesu weli-tiwi-t, tesu 			weli-tiwi-t."
   	"all the doctors pass-PERT-PL to see if him-cure-PL; no can-PERF-PL, no can-		PERF-PL."
 
17) 	"haika ha tesu pah-ti."
   	"therefore that no remedy."

18)  	pwes k-ilwia ne xu:re:-tsín, "ne  mu-te:lpu:ch-tsin ki-chiwa falta se:yuk kosah".
   	well her-say the old man-DIMIN, "the your-son-DIMIN it-do lack another thing".
19)	"ma: m-a:wilti wan mas pipil-tsi-tsín, yu mu-chiwa algegrár."
   	"that REFLEX-play with more boy-PL-DIMIN, go REFLEX-do rejoice."

20) 	"xi-tehchiya", k-ilwia, "te: xi-yu, xi-tehchiya".
   	"IMP-wait", her-say, "no IMP-go, IMP-wait".

21)	"yawi-t-a wi:ts-et ne nu-pila:-wan-tsi-tsin, yu-t m-a:wiltia-t."
   	"go-PL-now come-PL the my-son-PL POSS-PL-DIMIN, go-PL 
   	REFLEX-play-PL."
 
22)	pews ne:pa ka tiyu:tak wi:ts-et.
  	well there in afternoon come-PL.

23)	k-al-i:ka-t ne ye:y pipil-tsi-tsín se: in-mih-mich-in-tsi-tsín, wan ne se:yuk k-al-i:ka 	se: i-tapahsul ne wi:lu-tsin mareño.
   	it-DIR-carry-PL the three boy-PL-DIMIN a their-PL-fish-ABSOL-PL-DIMIN, 	and the other it-DIR-carry a its-nest the bird-DIMIN mareño.

24) 	"ah, xi-k-ida, mamáh", k-ilwia ne piltsin-tsín.
   	"oh, IMP-it-see, mama", her-say the boy-DIMIN.

25)	"ini ha ni-k-neki-skiya ma: nu-pal, ésto."
   	"that what I-it-want-COND that my-POSS, that."

26) 	mu-chih-ki algegrár ne piltsin-tsín.
   	REFLEX-do-PRET rejoice the boy-DIMIN.

27)	k-ilwia ne xu:re:-tsín, "xi-k-ida, ka mu-chiwa alegrár, k-ita ne wi:lu-tsi-tsín".
   	her-say the old man-DIMIN, "IMP-it-see, that REFLEX-do rejoice, it-see the 	bird-PL-DIMIN".
 
28)	k-ilwia ne i-teh-te:lpu:ch-tsin, "ini yu anmu-amigituh".
   	him (=them)-say the his-PL-son-DIMIN, "this go your pl.-little friend".

29)	"yu-t an-yawi-t, yu yawi anmu-wan, pal mu-chiwa dibertír, yu yawi anmu-wan."
   	"go-PL you pl.-go-PL, go go your-with, so REFLEX-do have fun, go go your-	with."

30) 	"tesu ha pal an-ki-su:ma-t."
   	"no that for you pl.-him-hit-PL."

31) 	"anmu-amigituh."
   	"your pl.-little friend."

32) 	pews ya:h-ke-t.
   	so go-PRET-PL.
33)	ne:pa ya:h-ke-t teh-te:n ne la:guh.
   	there go-PRET-PL PL-edge the lake.

34)	ka ne:pa, ka ne:pa ki-te:mua-t se: in-michin-tsin wan ne se:yuk ne i-tapahsul ne 	wih-wi:lu-tsín.
   	in there, in there it-seek-PL a their-fish-DIMIN and the other the its-nest the PL-		bird-DIMIN.

35) 	pero ki-ahsi-ke-t se:, ki-ahsi-ke-t.
   	but it-find-PRET-PL one, it-find-PRET-PL.

36)	mu-chih-ki alegrár ne piltsin-tsín, ne prínsipe ma: t-i:na-kan, mu-chih-ki alegrár.
   	REFLEX-do-PRET rejoice the boy-DIMIN, the prince let's we-say-PL IMP, 		REFLEX-do-PRET rejoice.

37) 	pews mu-kwep-ke-t.
   	so REFLEX-return-PRET-PL.

38)	k-ilwia ne i-na:n, "xi-k-ida, xi-k-ida, n-al-wi:ka se: nu-wi:lu-tsin".
   	her-say the his-mother, "IMP-it-see, IMP-it-see, I-DIR-take a my-bird-DIMIN".

39) 	"ini ha ni-k-neki-skiya katka, ni-m-a:wiltia."
   	"this what I-it-want-COND BEFORE, I-REFLEX-play."
 
40) 	"ini ha ni-mu-chiwa falta katka."
   	"this what I-REFLEX-do lack BEFORE."

41) 	"ne nu-sapatus n-yu ni-k-tamu:ta."
   	"the my-shoes I-go I-it-throw."

42) 	"n-yu ni-nemi deskalsoh ke:n-a nemi-t nu-amigitus", k-ilwia.
   	"I-go I-be barefoot just-like are-PL my-little friends", her-say.

43)	ki-tamu:ta-k ne i-sapatiyas de oroh, ki-a:n-ki ne i-na:n.
   	it-throw-PRET the his-little shoes of gold, it-pick up-PRET the his-mother.

44)	"tehemet ti-yawi-t-a", k-ilwia ne xu:re:-tsín, "x-a:-kan, pero te: xi-k-el-ka:wa 		cualquier  rato xi-wa:la wan ne mu-te:lpu:ch-tsin ka ni:kan nemi-t ne i-amigitus 	pal m-a:wiltia".
   	"we we-go-PL-now", her-say the old man-DIMIN; "IMP-go-IMP PL, but no IMP-		it-forget any time IMP-come with the your-son-DIMIN that here are-PL the his-	little friends for REFLEX-play".

45) 	"ini ha-ne ki-chiwa falta ne mu-te:lpu:ch-tsin". 
  	"this that i-do lack the your-son-DIMIN".

46)	pews “ kenemeh i-te:ku se: re:y, miki-k ne re:y.
         	well as his-father a king, die-PRET the king.

47)	ne piltsin-tsín kenemeh ta:ka-t-a, yaha naka-k de re:y.
   	the boy-DIMIN since man-ABASOL-already, he remain-PRET as king.

48)	ikuka ki-elna:mik ne i-amigitus, k-ilwia, "nah", k-ilwia, "na ni-k-elna:miki ne nu-		amigitus ka ti-ya:h-ke-t ti-pa:xa:lua-t ka ne:pa ka orillas, ka i-teh-te:m-pan ne 		la:guh".
   	then it-remembered the his-little friends, it-say, "I", it-say, I  him[=them]-	remember the my-little friends that we-go-PRET-PL we-walk-PL in there in 	banks, on its-PL-bank-LOC the lake".
 
49) 	"n-yu n-al-in-nu:tsa."
   	"I-go I-DIR-them-speak."

50) 	k-al-in-nu:ts-ki.
   	them-DIR-them-speak-PRET.

51) 	"a:xa:n", kin-ilwia, "naha ne re:y, xi-k-ida-kan".
   	"now", them-say, "I the king, IMP-it-see-PL IMP".

52) 	"ni-k-elna:mik ka an-ehemet an-nu-amigitus."
   	"I-it-remembered that you-pl. you pl.-my-little friends."

53) 	"haika ha ni-mitsin-nu:tsa." 
   	therefore that I-you pl.-speak."

54) 	"n-yu ni-mitsin-maka se: pwestoh, se: kargoh."
   	"I-go I-you pl.-give a position, a post."

55)	"taha  ti-yu  ti-naka  de ministro, taha  se:yuk ministro, wan taha se:yuk 			ministro."
   	"you you-go you-remain as minister, you another minister, and you another 		minister."

56)	kin-maka-k pwestoh ne prínsipe ne se:yuk pih-pi:pil-met, kenemeh tah-ta:ka-	met-a.
   	them-give-PRET position the prince the other PL-boy-PL, as PL-man-PL-already.

57) 	axta ni:kan ahsi-k ne tu-ka:suh.
   	to here arrive-PRET the our-story.

The Story of a King
(Historia de un Rey)

   		(1) Once there was a king; he had a son. (2) Since he was his only one, the king loved him, he really loved him. (3) He bought gold shoes for him, he bought gold shoes. (4) But, since he didn’t play outside, he became sad. (5) They had him there all alone; he began to get sick, he started to get ill. (6) His mother – we mean the queen – his mother said, “Let’s go take a walk there in the woods”. (7) “Let’s go see if you won’t cheer up a bit.” (8) So they went; she took him. (9) There on the plain they arrived at an old man’s house, a little old man.
		(10) There, there was an old man; he said, “Come in, señora, come in.” (11) He gave her a block of wood to sit on; “sit down”, he said. (12) The queen felt good that he attended them. (13) She was happy. (14) “Well”, the old man said, “your little son is sick, he’s sick”. (15) “Yes”, she said, “he’s sick”. (16) “All the doctors have come to see if they could cure him; they haven’t been able to, they haven’t been able”. (17) “So, he doesn’t get better”. (18) Then, the old man said, “Your son needs something”. (19) “Let him play with other boys, he will cheer up”. (20) “Wait”, he said, “don’t go”, “wait!”. (21) “My boys are going to come soon, they’re going to play”. (22) And towards the afternoon they come. (23) The three boys brought some little fish, and the other brought a nest of the mareño bird. (24) “Oh, look mama”, said the little boy. (25) “That’s what I wish were mine, that there”. (26) The little boy was happy. (27) The old man told her, “Look, he’s happy to see the little birds”. (28) He said to his sons, “This is going to be your friend”. (29) “You’ll go and he’ll go with you; he’ll go with you to have a good time”. (30) “He’s not here for you to hit him”. (31) “He is your friend”. (32) So they went. (33) They went there to the shores of the lake. (34) There, over there, they looked for some fish and the other one for a bird’s nest. (35) And they found one, they found it. (36) The little boy was happy; we mean the prince was happy. (37) Then, they returned. (38) He said to his mother, “Look, look, I brought a little bird”. (39) “That’s what I wanted, to play”. (40) “That’s what I was missing”. (41) “I am going to throw my shoes away”. (42) “I’m going to be barefoot just like my friends are”, he said. (43) He threw away his golden shoes; his mother picked them up. (44) “We’re going now”, said the old man; “You go too, but don’t forget, come anytime with your son; here are his friends to play with”. (45) “That’s what your son needed”.
		(46) Then, since his father was a kind, the king died. (47) The little boy, since now he was a man, became the king, he became king. (48) Then he remembered his friends; he said, “I”, he said, “I remember my friends, how we went to walk there on the shores of the lake”. (49) “I’m going to call them.” (50) He called them. (51) “Now”, he said, “I am the king, look!”. (52) “I remembered you, that you are my friends.” (53) “That’s why I called you”. (54) “I am going to give you a position, an office”. (55) “You will be a minister, you will be another minister, and you will be yet another minister”. (56) The prince gave an office to the boys, since they were men now. (57) That’s how far our story goes.

El Nanahuatzin
(The Nanahuatzin)
Cuisnahuat, 1976

1) 	a:xa:n katka se: ta:ka-t mu-na:miktih.
 	now BEFORE a man-ABASOL REFLEX-married.

2)	tesu ki-mati katka ka ne i-siwa:-w se: bru:hah.
	no it-know BEFORE that the his-wife-POSS a witch.

3) 	ka tah-tayuwa kuchi nemi.
	in PL-night sleeping is.
	
4) 	ne i-siwa:-w ki:sa pa:xa:lua.
	the his-wife-POSS leave walk.

5) 	mu-kech-kupi:na ki:sa pa:xa:lua. 
	REFLEX-neck-tear off leave walk.

6) 	naka ne i-kwerpoh, se: maya ne i-tsuntekun.
	remain the her-body, a only the her-head.

7) 	yaha ki-tahtan se: konse:hoh wan ki-maka-ke-t, ki-maka t se: konse:hoh.      
	he it-request an advice and it-give-PRET-PL, him-give-PL an advice.

8) 	k-ilwih-ke-t ma: ki-ma:walti chi:l.
	him-say-PRET-PL that her-smear chili.
	
9) 	pwes ki-ma:waltih ne se:yuk.
	so her-smeared chili the other.
	
10) 	wi:ts ka madrugada ne i-tsuntekun; te:-ya su weli-k mu-sa:lua.
	come in morning the her-head; no-longer no can-PRET REFLEX-stick.

11)  	ki-chih-ki luchar peroh tesu weli-k,  pe:h-ki chu:ka,  pe:h-ki chu:ka.
	it-do-PRET fight but no can-PRET, begin-PRET cry, begin-PRET cry.

12)  	ki-nu:tsa ne i-xu:leh-yu;  ya tesu ki-chiwa ka:soh,  ke:n  ne: kuchi-ki-ya, wan tesu 	kuchi.
	her-speak the her-husband-INT POSS; she no him-do case, as there sleep-PRET-	IMPERF, and not sleep. 

13) 	k-ita ta: ki-chiwa nemi ne i-siwa:-w.
	it-see what it-do is the his-wife-POSS.

14) 	uk ki-nu:ts-ki mu-tamu:ta-k ne tsuntekuma-t, mu-sa:luh pak i-kech-ku:yu.
	when her-speak-PRET REFLEX-throw-PRET the skull-ABSOL, REFLEX-stuck 	on her-neck-stock.

15)  	ta: ki-kwa ne ta:ka-t  k-i:xti-lia,  k-i:xti-lia,  muchi  k(-)i:xti-lia, ta: ki-neki ki-kwa 	muchi k(-)i:xti-lia.
	what it-eat the man-ABSOL it-take-APPLIC, it-take-APPLIC, everything it-take-	APPLIC.

16) 	te:-ya su weli; yawi-ya miki.
	no-longer no can; go-already die.

17) 	ya:h-ki ki-tahtani se:yuk konse:hoh, ya:h-ki ka tyupan, chan ne pa:leh.
	go-PRET it-request another advice, go-PRET to church, to the priest.

18) 	ma: ki-maka ne konse:hoh ke:n ki-chiwa-skiya.
	that him-give the advice how it-do-COND.

19) 	pwes ya:h-ki.
	so go-PRET.

20) 	se-pa ne tsuntekuma-t tesu ki-neki naka te:n tyupan,  tesu  ki-neki.
	one-time (=again) the skull-ABSOL no it-want stay edge church, no it-want.

21) 	tesu ki-neki ku:temu, asi es, tesu ki-neki ku:temu.
	no it-want descend, thus is, no it-want descend.

22) 	pero al fin de tanto ku:temu-k.
	but at end of all descend-PRET.

23) 	ki-ta:lih ne i-chaketah ne ta:ka-tsin; ne: ki-naktih; ya:h-ki ka-dentroh ne ta:ka-tsin.
	her-place the his-jacket the man-DIMIN;  there it-left; go-PRET in-inside the 	man-DIMIN.

24) 	k-ilwia ne pa:leh ka ne i-siwa:-w bru:hah.
	him-say the priest that the his-wife-POSS witch.

25) 	"naha tesu ni-k-mati, peroh nech-ilwih-ke-t ka nu-siwa:-w bru:hah, ma: ni-k-	ta:lih kwidado."
	"I no I-it-know,  but me-tell-PRET-PL that my-wife-POSS witch, that I-it-take 	care."

26) 	"kada tayuwa ki:sa pa:xa:lua se:l i-tsuntekun."
	"each night leave walk alone her-head."

27)  	"te:roh ne kayeh ne peh-pe:lu-met wawawawawawawawawawa ku:yu:-chu:ka-t, 	ku:yu:-chu:ka-t ne pe:lu-met.
	"entire the street the PL-dog-PL wawawawawawawawawawa coyote-cry-PL, 	coyote-cry-PL the dog-PL.

28) 	"ka madrugada wi:ts, wi:ts se-pa."
	"in morning come, come one-time (=again)."

29) 	"pero kenemeh ni-k-maka-k chi:l, te:-ya su weli-k." 
	"but as I-her-give-PRET chili, no-longer no can-PRET."

30)  	"a:xa:n nech-ilwia ne pa:leh a:su ni-k-piya  se:  nu-finki:ta, ma: ni-yu  i-wan wan 	ne chih-chi:l-tik tsapu-t ma:  ki-kwa ne  uh-uksi-k, wan tami ma: ki-maka wan ne 	chih-chika:h-tuk pal ni-k-mik-tia."
	"now  me-told the priest if I-it-have a my-little farm, that I-go her-with and the 	PL-red-ADJ zapote-ABSOL that it-eat th PL-ripe-ADJ, and after that her-give 	with the PL-hard-PERF/ADJ so I-her-die-CAUS.

31) 	"peroh ke:n ne: ni-nemi, ni-nemi ni-k-chiwa luchar." 
	"but since there I-am, I-am I-it-do fight."

32) 	ka kanah k-al-mu:tih-tiwi-t se: masa:-t.
	who knows it-DIR-scare-PERF-PL a deer-ABSOL.

33) 	kabal  ne: panu-k tan ne tsapu-t; mu-tamu:ta ne tsuntekuma-t. 
	exact there pass-PRET under the zapote-ABSOL; REFLEX-throw the skull-	ABSOL.

34) 	la:h – mu-sa:luh ni:kan pak ne masa:-t.
	"Laj" – REFLEX-stick here on the deer-ABSOL.

35) 	ne masa:-t ma mu-tah-tamu:ta.
	the deer-ABSOL more REFLEX-PL-throw.

36) 	tik ne wits-tal ya:h-ki, ustu:-wetsi – ra:n – mu-tamu:ta ne ustu:-t.   
	in the thorn-place go-PRET, ravine-fall – "ra:n" -REFLEX-throw the ravine-	ABSOL.

37) 	pa: – wets-ki – tsililililili – miki-k ne masa:-t. 
	Pa! – fall-PRET – shaaaaaake – die-PRET the deer-ABSOL.

38) 	ikuka mu-kupi:n ne tsuntekun, ne: naka-k.
	then REFLEX-tear off the skull, there stay-PRET.

39) 	pe:h-ke-t temu-t ne kuh-kusma-met. 
	begin-PRET-PL descend-PL the PL-vulture-PL.
40)	ki-neki-t ki-kwa-t ne naka-t, ne ihya-k naka-t pal ne masa:-t. 
	it-want-PL it-eat-PL the meat-ABSOL, the stinking-ADJ meat-ABSOL
	of the deer-ABSOL.

41) 	pe:h-ki kin-mu:tia, y "xe: xe: xe: xe: xe:". 
	begin-PRET them-scare, and "shew shew shew shew shew".

42) 	"te: xi-k-kwa-kan nu-xu:leh-yu, te: xi-k-kwa-kan nu-xu:leh-yu", asi le dice.
	"no IMP-him-eat-IMP PL my-husband-INT POSS, no IMP-him-eat-IMP PL my-	husband-INT POSS", thus him say.

43) 	al fin de tanto wa:ki-k ne masa:-t wan yaha, ne tsuntekuma-t, yawi-ya miki ka i-	se:l-tsin tik ne kebrada.
	at end of all dry-PRET the deer-ABSOL and she, the skull-ABSOL, go-now 	die in her-alone-DIMIN in the canyon.

44) 	miki-k; ka:n ne mik-tuk wal-ta:kat-ki se: tekuma-t, wal-ta:kat-ki se: tekuma-t.
	die-PRET; where it die-PERF DIR-grow-PRET a bottlegourd-ABSOL, DIR-	grow-PRET a bottlegourd-ABSOL.

45) 	yawi ne tan-tepus-lama-t.
	go the tooth-iron-old-woman-ABSOL (= "witch").

46) 	ha yaha i-na:n, ne bru:hah tan-tepus-lama-t.
	that her her-mother, the witch tooth-iron-old woman-ABSOL.

47) 	ya:h-ki ya.
	go-PRET she.

48)	ki-mat-ki ka:n nemi ne i-siwa:pil-tsin. 
	it-know-PRET where is the her-girl-DIMIN.

49) 	ki-ahsi-k ne:. 
	her-find-PRET there.

50) 	"ah, ne nu-siwa:pil-tsin, ni:kan ti-mik-tuk, pero ni:kan nemi ne nu-chi:chiwal, 	ni:kan yu ki:sa ne mu-chi:chiwal amo."
	"oh, the my-girl-DIMIN, here you-die-PERF, but here is the my-gourd, here go 	leave the your-gourd love." 

51) 	wan tami ya:h-ki, ya:h-ki.
	and later go-PRET, go-PRET.

52) 	mu-chih-ki ne kwawi-t wan ki-pix-ki se: i-ta:kil, se: wahkal. 
	REFLEX-make-PRET the tree-ABSOL and it-have-PRET a its-fruil, a gourd.

53) 	ki-mat-ki ne tan-tepus-lama-t; wi:ts pal yawi k-ita.
	it-know-PRET the tooth-iron-old woman-ABOSOL; come so go it-see.

54) 	kabal uksi-tuk ne wahkal.
	exact ripe-PERF the gourd.

55) 	"ah, nu-siwa:pil-tsin, ni:kan nemi ne mu-chi:chiwal." 
	"on, my-girl-DIMIN, here is the your-gourd."

56) 	ki-tek, ki-tek wan ki-wi:ka-k ka i-chan.
	it-cut, it-cut and it-take-PRET to her-house.

57) 	ki-ta:lih ka ne:pa, pak ka tik tsinkal ki-ta:lih.
	it-place in there, on to in corner it-place.

58) 	panu-k como se: me:s, uksi-k ye:k ne wahkal.
	pass-PRET like a mouth, ripe-ADJ good the gourd.

59)  	kabal tapa:ni-k ka tahku tayuwa, ma: ti-k-i:na-kan, ne medianoche, ti-k-kaki tahku 	tayuwa.
	exact burst-PRET in half night, let's we-it-say-IMP PL, the midnight, you-it-hear 	half night.

60) 	pa: – tapa:n.
	"pow" – burst.

61) 	 ya:h-ki k-ita ne lamah-tsin; se:l pi:pil-tsi-tsin ne i-i:x-yu ne tekuma-t, se:l pi:pil-	tsi-tsin.
	go-PRET it-see the old woman-DIMIN only boy-PL-DIMIN the its-seed-INT 	POSS the bottlegourd-ABSOL, only boy-PL-DIMIN.

62)  	"nanita, nanita, nanita", k-ilwia-t in-lama, "queremos hamaquita, nanita", k-ilwia-t 	tik kastiyah.
	"gramma, gramma, gramma", her-say their-grandmother, "we want little 	hammocks, gramma", it-say in Spanish.

63) 	"xi-k-chiwa se: tu-chi:wix."
	"IMP-it-make a our-little hammock."

64) 	"xi-tehchi(y)a-kan uk; n-u ni-k-chiwa."
	"IMP-wait-IMP PL yet; I-go I-it-make."

65) 	ya:h-ki kene de regreso k-al-i:ka-k se: i-ah-a:makah. 
	go-PRET then of return it-DIR-carry-PRET a his-PL-hammock.

66) 	ya:h-ki k-al-in-a:na ne i-pila-wan-tsi-tsin, yawi kene tan ne pu:chu-t, tan ne 	pu:chu-t.
	go-PRET it-DIR-them-bring the her-son-PL POSS-PL-DIMIN, go then under the 	silk-cotton tree-ABSOL, under the silk-cotton-ABSOL.

67)  	pe:h-ki  k-ilwia tik  mahikah, "tsapa:lu  pu:chu-t, tsapa:lu pu:chu-t, tsapa:lu 	pu:chu-t, tsapa:lu pu:chu-t, tsapa:lu pu:chu-t, tsapa:lu pu:chu-t".
	begin-PRET it-say in magic, lower silk-cotton tree, lower silkcotton tree, lower 	silk-cotton tree, lower silk-cotton tree, lower silk-cotton tree".

68) 	ne pu:chu-t wal-temu wi:ts, wal-temu wi:ts ne pu:chu-t y tahta:sa ne mah-mahtsal 	tik ta:l.
	the silk-cotton tree-ABSOL DIR-descend come, DIR-descend come the silk 	cotton tree amd PL-touch the PL-branch on ground.

69) 	pe:h-ki ne in-lama ki-wih-wila:nih ne ah-a:makitas.
	begin-PRET the their-grandmother it-PL-hang the PL-little hammocks.

70) 	wan tami, "ahka pu:chu-t, ahka pu:chu-t, ahka pu:chu-t"; ya:h-ki se-pa ne pu:chu-t 	ka ahku.
	and after, "up silk-cotton tree, up silk-cotton tree, up silk-cotton tree"; go-PRET 	one-time the silk-cotton tree to up.

71) 	wan tami k-al-nu:ts-ke-t ne in-lama, ki-neki-t temu-t, ma: k-al-temulti.
	and after her-DIR-speak-PRET-PL the  their-grandmother, it-want-PL descend-	PL, that it (=them)-DIR-lower.

72) 	pwes ya:h-ki ne lamah-tsin.
	well go-PRET the old woman-DIMIN.

73) 	k-al-temultia; tah-ta:ka-met. 
	it (=them)-DIR-lower; PL-man-PL.
	
74) 	k-ilwia-t ne in-lama, "na:ni:ta, mu:sta t-yu-t ti-yawi-t ti-ta-pe:wia-t", k-ilwia-t.
	her-say-PL the their-grandmother, "gramma, tomorrow we-go-PL we-go-pl we-	something-hunt-PL, it-say-PL.

75) 	"x-a:-kan nu-ixwiyu-wan", k-ilwia.
	"IMP-go-IMP PL my-grandchild-POSS PL", it-say.

76) 	ya:h-ket; k-al-mik-tih-ke-t se: masa:-t.
	go-PRET-PL; it-DIR-die-CAUS-PRET-PL a deer-ABSOL.

77)  	ki-xi:pe:h-ke-t wan ki-maka-ke-t ne in-lama ma: ki-mana; ki-man-ki.
	it-skin-PRET-PL and it-give-PRET-PL the their-grandmother that it-cook; it-	cook-PRET.
78) 	uk uksi-k ne takwal, kenemeh yehemet mu-chih-tiwi-t desbelar, kuchi-t.
	when  cooked-ADJ the food, since they REFLEX-do-PERF-PL stay up, sleep-PL.

79) 	kin-nu:ts-ki ne in-lama; k-ilwia, "x-i:sa-kan, nemi-ya  ne takwal, x-i:sa-kan  nu-	pila-wan-tsi-tsin, x-i:sa-kan, nemi-ya ne takwal".
	them-speak-PRET the their-grandmother; it-say, IMP-wake-IMP PL, is-already 	the food, IMP-wake-IMP PL my-son-PL POSS-PL-DIMIN, IMP-wake-PL IMP, 	is-already the food".

80) 	ki-kwa-t ne takwal, ki-kwa-t ne takwal ka yu-t ta-pe:wia(-t).
	it-eat-PL the food, it-eat-PL the food that go-PL something-hunt-t.
		
81) 	pero, pero kin-xih-xi:kuh ne in-lama porke ya ki-piya se: enamorado.
	but, but them-PL-deceived the their-gramdmother because she it-have a lover.

82) 	pe:h-ki k-al-nu:tsa ne i-enamorado pal se:n-ta-kwa-t, pal se:n-ta-kwa-t wan ne i-	enamorado.
	begin-PRET him-DIR-speak the her-lover so together-something-eat-PL, so  	together-something-eat-PL with  the her-lover.

83)  	ne i-ixwiyu-wan te:-ya su kin-maka ne takwal, se maya ne i-enamorado se:n-ta-	kwa-t.
	the her-grandchild-PL POSS no-longer no them-give the food, a only the her-	lover together-something-eat-PL.

84) 	kenemeh nemi ne na:na:wa-tsin, ne chimpe na:na:wa-tsin, ya k-ita ta: ki-chiwa ne 	in-lama.
	as is the Nanahuatzin, the youngest child Naanaahuatzin, he it-see what it-do the 	their-grandmother.

85)	kin-ilwia ne i-erma:nuh-wan,  
	"nu-lama mitsin-chiwa nemi hoder, tesu an-ta-kwa-t".
	them-say the his-brother-PL POSS, "my-grandmother you pl.-do is screwing, no 	you pl.-something-eat-PL".

86) 	“kábal mitsin-mahma:waltia ne anmu-the-te:nxi:pal mu-chiwa-t saboriár.”
	“just you pl.-smear the your pl.-PL-lip so REFLEX-do-PL taste.”

87)	“ay nanita”, k-ilwia-t, “nanita, tenemos hambre”, k-ilwia-t.
	“oh gramma”, her-say-PL, “gramma, we have hunger”, her-say-PL.

88)	“ya les dí que comer, pero lámbanse los labios”, k-ilwia komo tik kastiyah kin-	nu:ts-ki, “lámbanse los labios, , ya comieron”.
	“already you I gave to eat, but lick the lips”, it-say as in Spanish them-speak-	PRET, “lick the lips, already you ate”.

89)	sa:nka kin-ilwia; tesu ta-kwa-tiwi-t.
	lie them-tell; not something-eat-PERF-PL.

90)	kin-ilwia ne na:na:wa-tsin, ne chimpe, “xi-nech-wi:ka-kan; ne i-da:muh nu-lama 	yaha ha ki-kwa ne takwal; pews xi-nech-wi:ka-kan”.
	them-say the Nanahuatzin, the youngest child, “IMP-me-take-IMP PL; the her-	fellow my grandmother he who it-eat the food; then IMP-me-take-IMP PL.

91)	“n-yu ni-mitsin-ilwitia ka:n panu ne:.”
	I-go I-you PL-show where pass there.”

92) 	“yu-wan ki-chiwa-t ne sanho; yu-wan ki-tah-tameh-chiwa-t ne witskuyul, pal 	ne: naka, ne: naka, yu miki.”
	“go-PL IMP it-do-PL the trench; go-IMP PL it-PL-point-make-PL the 	guiscoyol, so there stay, go to die.”

93) 	ya:h-ke-t, ki-wi:ka-ke-t.
	go-PRET-PL, him-take-PRET-PL.

94)	“t-yu-t ti-k-wi:ka-t ne tu-ermanituh, lama.”
	“we-go-PL we-take-PL the our-little brother, grandmother”.

95)	“te:, porké yu ki-kukua-witsti, yu ki-kukua-witsti”, kin-ilwia.
	“no, because go him-hurt-thorn, go him-hurt-thorn”, them-say.

96)	pero ki-wi:ka-ke-t.
	but him-take-PRET-PL.

97)	“ni:kan xi-k-chiwa-kan ne sa:nhoh, man xi-k-tsuh-tsun-tamehti-kan ne 	witskuyul wan ne: xi-k-ta:l-pachu-kan.”
	“here IMP-it-make-IMP PL the trench, but IMP-it-PL-point-sharpen-PL IMP 	the güiscoyol and there IMP-it-ground-place-IMP PL.”

98) 	“uk yu wi:ts ne: tu-kuhkul wan yu ki-mati ne ‘parrá:n’, ‘pá:’, yu temu.”
	“now go come there our-bogeyman and go it-feel the ‘parran’, ‘pa’, go to fall.”

99)	“’to:p, to:p, to:p, to:p’, yu panu ne wih-wits-ti.”
	“’top, top, top, top’, go to pass the PL-thorn-ABSOL.”

100)	pews kiya ki-chih-ke-t.
	so thus it-do-PRET-PL.

101) 	ne se:yuk noche “pla:h”, net u-kuhkul, “a:ha:(n)”.
	the other night “plah”, the our-bogeyman, “ah”.

102)	“t-yu-t ti-k-xi:pe:wa-t”, i:na-ke-t.
	“we-go-PL we-him-skin-PL”, say-PRET-PL.

103)	ki-xi:pe:h-ke-t, ki-pa:ka-t, ki-wi:ka-ke-t chan ne in-lama.
	It-skin-PRET-PL, it-wash-PL, it-take-PRET-PL to the their-grandmother.

104) 	“xi-k-ida, na:ni:ta”, k-ilwia-t, “t-al-i:ka-t masa:-t”, wan sa:nka.
	“IMP-it-see, gramma”, it-say-PL, “we-DIREC-take-PL deer-ABSOL”, and lie.

105)	tesu ha masa:-t, ne i-naka-yu tu-kuhkul, ne i-da:muh ne in-lama.
	no that deer-ABSOL, the his-meat-INT POSS our-bogeyman, the her-fellow 	their grandmother.

106) 	“pews e:he, e:h nu-pila-wan-tsi-tsin, n-yu ni-k-mana, t-yu-t ti-ta-kwa-t.”
	“well yes, yes my-son-PL-PL-DIMIN, I-go I-it-cook, we-go-PL we-something-	eat-PL.”

107)	tesu, tesu ha masa:-t sin one i-da:muh ne in-lama.
	no, not that deer-ABSOL rather the her-fellow the their-grandmother.

108)	ha yaha ki-miktih-ke-t, wan ki-wi:ka-ke-t ne naka-t pal ki-kwa ne in-lama.
	that he him-kill-PRET-PL, and her-take-PRET-PL the meat-ABSOL so it-eat 	the their-grandmother.

109)	uksi-k ne takwal.
	done-ADJ the food.

110) 	kin-ilwia tik kastiyah, “levántesse mis nietos, ya está la comida”.
	Them-say in Spanish, “get up my grandchildren, already is the food.”

111)	“ay nanita, me duele la cabeza, yo estoy rendido,” k-ilwia-t tik kastiyah.
	“oh gramma, me hurt the head, I am exausted,” her-say-PL in Spanish.

112)	ah, pews pe:h-ki ta-kwa i-se:l-tsin.
	oh, so begin-PRET something-eat her-alone-DIMIN.

113)	“xi-kuchi-kam-a!” k-ilwia tik na:wa:-t, “xi-kuchi-kan!”.
	“IMP-sleep-IMP PL-now!” it-say in Pipil, “IMP-sleep-IMP PL!”

114)	kutchi-ke-t se-pa.
	sleep-PRET-PL one-time.

115)	pe:h-ki ne tan-tepus-lama ki-kwa ne naka-t.
	begin-PRET the tooth-iron-old woman it-eat the meat-ABSOL.

116) 	wan tame k-ilwih-ke-t, “ke:n ti-k-mat-ki ne naka-t, lama?”
	and after her-say-PRET-PL, “how you-it-feel-PRET the meat-ABSOL, 	grandmother?”

117)	“bi:dah nu-the-te:lpu:ch-tsin, bi:dah nu-the-te:lpu:ch-tsin yama:ni-k.”
	“delicious my-PL-son-DIMIN, delicious my-PL-son-DIMIN, soft.”

118)	“ini ne i-naka-yu tu-kuhkul,” k-ilwih-ke-t.
	“that the his-meat-INT POSS our-bogeyman,” her-say-PRET-PL.

119)	“ay, era mierda, era mierda, a:h.”
	“oh, was shit, was shit, ah.”

120)	ki-neki m-isu:ta, tesu weli-k.
	it-want REFLEX-vomit, not can-PRET.

121)	“ha, ni-k-mati ka mitsin-maka-tuk ne konse:hoh, ne chimpe mitsin-maka-tuk ne 	konse:hoh.”
	“ha, I-it-know what you PL-give-PERF the advice, the youngest child you PL-	give-PERF the advice.”

122)	“bueno, está bueno,” ma: kiya, pero n-yu ni-kmiktia ne chimpituh.”
	“good, is good,” that so, but I-go I-him-kill the youngest child.”

123)	ki-neki ki-miktia katka.
	It-want him-kill BEFORE.

124)	ya:h-ki ki-tantia ne i-tan, ne:pa te:n kebrada ki-tantia ne i-tan pal ki-kwa ne 	piltsi-tsin.
	go-PRET it-sharpen the her-tooth, there edge canyon it-sharpen the her-tooth for 	him-eat the boy-DIMIN.

125)	yu ki-maka se: mordida. 
	go him-give a bite.

126)	k-ilwia ne ku:talah-tsin ne se:yuk, tik kastiyah k-ilwia, “mirá tenguerechol,” k-	ilwia, “andá vé qué hace mi manita,” k-ilwia tik kastiyah.

127)	“voy a ir, es el tenguereche; ya:h-ki ne tenguerecheh.
	“I go to go,” is the lizard; go-PRET the lizard.

128)	panu-k, k-ita-k ka ki-tantia nemi ne i-tan, ki-tantia nemi ne i-tan.
	Pass-PRET it-see-PRET that it sharpening is the her-tooth, it-sharpening is the 	her-tooth.

129)	mu-kwep-ki ne tenguerechul.
	REFLEX-return-PRET the lizard.

130)	“nech-maka-k se: pedrada,” k-ilwia.
	“me-give-PRET a stoning,” him-tell.

131)	“ni:kan naka-k ne tehitah;” ki-ahsi se: pedasoh tehah, ki-tsiun-tapa:n.
	“here stay-PRET the little tile;” it-find a piece tile, him-head-bust.

132)	“bueno, está bueno, pero yu k-ita nu-lama ke:n yu panu.”
	“good, is good, but go it-see my-grandmother how go pass.”

133)	mas ka tiyu:tak wi:tsa-ya wan ne i-tapak.
	more in evening come-IMPERF with the her-wash.

134)	k-ilwih-ke-t, “xi-k-ida lama, t-yu-t ti-yawi-t se: apwesta, ka: panu ne i-a:xi:x 	tsum-pan kal tesu ti-k-mitki-sneki-t.”
	her say-PRET-PL, “IMP-it-look grandmother, we-go-PL we-go-PL a bet, who 	pass the his/her-urine head-on house no we-him/her-kill-DESIDERATIVE-PL.”

135)	“ka: te: panu ne i-a:xi:x ne:pa t-yu-t ti-k-miktia-t.”
	“who no pass the his/her-urine there we-go-PL we-him/her-kill-PL.”

136)	pe:h-ke-t kene ne tah-ta:ka-met, “chi:rr:::,” bah, yawi se:yuk “i:rr:::.”
	begin-PRET-PL then the PL-man-PL, “chirr,” bah, go another “irr.”

137)	“a:xa:n xi-k-itski-kan tu-lama, ma: ki-panulti ne i-a:xi:x.”
	“now IMP-her-grab-PL IMP our-grandmother, that it-pass the her-urine.”

138)	ki:s-ki mu-talua, mu-kal-tsak.
	left REFLEX-run, REFLEX-house-shut.

139)	k-ilpih-ke-t ne ah-a:rgoyah wan ki-maka-ke-t ti:-t ne kal.
	it-tie-PRET-PL the PL-ring and it-give-PRET-PL, fire-ABSOL the house.

140)	ne: tami-k ne tan-tepus-lama.
	There end-PRET the tooth-iron-woman.

The Nanahuatzin
(El Nanahuatzin)

	(1) Once there was a man who got married. (2) He didn’t know that his wife was a witch. (3) In the nights he is sleeping. (4) His wife goes out to walk around. (5) She takes her head off and goes out to walk around. (6) Her body remains and only her head goes. (7) He asked for advice and it was given to him, they gave his advice. (8) They told him to smear chili on her. (9) So he smears her. (10) The head came in the morning; she was no longer able to attach herself. (11) She strove to do it, but she couldn’t; she began to cry, she began to cry. (12) She spoke to her husband; he didn’t pay attention to her, as though he was sleeping, but he wasn’t asleep. (13) He was seeing what his wife was doing. (14) When he spoke to her the skull throw itself and stuck onto his neck. (15) Whatever the man ate she took away from him, she took it away, she took everything, whatever he wanted to eat she took away from him. (16) He could no longer make it; he was hoping to die. (17) He went to ask for more advice; he went to the church, to the priest’s. (18) He should advise him how he should do it. (19) So he went. (20) The head did not want to stay outside in front of the church, she didn’t want to. (21) She didn’t want to get down; that’s how it was, she didn’t want to get off. (22) But finally she got down. (23) The man put his jacket down for her; there he left her; the man went inside. (24) He told the priest that his wife was a witch.
	(25) “I don’t know, but they told me my wife is a witch, that I should be careful.” (26) “Each night she goes out to walk around, but only her head.” (27) “All along the street the dogs howl ‘wawawawawawawawa,’ the dogs howl.” (28) “In the morning she came, she came again.” (29) “But since I put chili on her, she no longer could.” (30) “Now the priest told me that if I have a farm that I should go with her that she eats the red custard apples that are ripe, and then I should hit her with the hard ones in order to kill her.” (31) “But since I was there, I would be trying to.” 
	(32) Who knows from where a deer was startled. (33) It went by right there under the zapote tree; the head threw itself. (34) “Lah” – it stuck here on the deer (on its neck). (35) The deer took off jumping. (36) Into the thorns it went; it fell in the ravine – “rann” – it threw itself into the ravine. (37) “Pa!” – it fell it – it trembled and trembled – the deer died. (38) Then the skull let go; it stayed there. (39) The vultures started descending. (40) They wanted to eat the meat, the sticking meat of the deer. (41) She started to scare them, “shew, shew, shew, shew, shew!” (42) “Don’t eat my husband, don’t eat my husband!” that’s what she said to them. (43) Finally the deer dried up and she, the skull, was going to die all alone there in the canyon. (44) She died; where she had died a ground tree sprouted.
	(45) The witch (the “iron-toothed-old-woman”) came. (46) It’s she who in her mother, the witch “iron-toothed-old-woman.” (47) She went. (48) She knew where her daughter was. (49) She found her there. (50) “Oh, my daughter, you have died here, but there is my gourd, your gourd of love is coming to come up here.” (51) And then she left, she went. (52) The tree grew and it had a fruit, a gourd. (53) The iron-toothed-old-woman sensed it; she came to go to see it. (54) The gourd was just ripe. (55) “Oh, my daughter, here is your gourd.” (56) She cut it off, she cut it and took it home. (57) She put it over there, in the corner of the house she placed it.
	(58) About a month went by; the gourd was quite ripe. (59) Then it split open in the middle of the night, let’s say at midnight; you hear it at midnight. (60) “Pa!” – it burst open. (61) The old woman went to see; the seeds of the gourd were just little boys, they were just little boys. (62) “Gramma, gramma, gramma,” they said to her grandmother, “we want little hammocks, gramma,” they said to her in Spanish. (63) “Make us little hammocks!” (64) “Wait a bit; I am going to do it.” (65) So she returned and brought some hammocks. (66) She went to get her little boys, then she went under the silk-cotton tree, under the silk-cotton tree. (67) She started to say in magic “down silk-cotton tree, down tree, down tree, down tree!” (68) The silk-cotton tree came down, down came the silk-cotton tree and its branches touched the ground. (69) Their grandmother began to hang the hammocks. (70) Afterwards, “up silk-cotton tree, up tree, up tree;” the silk-cotton tree went back up. (71) Later they called their grandmother; they want to get down, get them down. (72) Well, the old woman went. (73) She got them down; they were already men.
	(74) They said to their grandmother, “gramma, tomorrow we are going to go hunt,” they tell her. (75) “Go ahead, my grandchildren,” she said. (76) They went; they killed a deer. (77) They skinned it and told their grandmother to cook it; she cooked it. (78) When the food was ready, since they had stayed up, they slept. (79) Their grandmother spoke to them, she said, “wake up, the food is ready, wake up my children, wake up, the food is ready!” (80) They ate the food; they ate the food that they went to catch.
	(81) But their grandmother deceived them because she had a lover. (82) She began to call her lover so they could eat together, so she could eat together with her lover. (83) She no longer gave the food to her grandchildren; she only ate together with her lover.
	(84) But as the Nanahuatzin was there, the youngest child, he saw that their grandmother was doing. (85) He told his brothers, “my grandmother is screwing you; you’re not eating.” (86) “She just smears grease on your lips so they will taste.” (87) “Oh, gramma,” they said, “gramma we’re hungry” they tell her. (88) “I already fed you, but lick your lips,” she said, since she spoke to them in Spanish, “lick your lips, you already ate.” (89) She lied; they had not eaten. (90) The Nanahuatzin, the youngest child, said to them, “take me; my grandmother’s fellow, he’s the one who eats the food; so take me!” (91) “I’m going to show you where he goes.” (92) “Go make a trench; go sharpen güiscoyols (thorny palms) so he’ll stay there, stay there, he’s going to die.” (93) They went and they took him. (94) “We’re going to take our little brother, grandmother.” (95) “No, because he is going to get stuck with the thorns, he’s going to get pricked,” she tells them. (96) But they took him. (97) “Make the trench here, but sharpen the güiscoyols and put them in the ground.” (98) “Now, our ‘bogeyman’ is coming here and he’s going to feel the “parram,” “pa,” he’s going to fall.” (99) “top, top, top, top,” the thorns are going to pierce him.” (100) So that’s what they did. (101) The next night, “plah”; it’s their ‘bogeyman’, “ah”. (102) “Let’s skin him,” they said. (103) They skinned him, washed him, and took him to their grandmother’s. (104) “Look, gramma,” they said to her, “we brought a deer,” and it was a lie. (105) That was not a deer; it was the meat of their ‘bogeyman’, of their grandmother’s fellow. (106) “Well yes, yes, my children, I’m going to cook it, we’re going to eat.” (107) No, it was not a deer, but rather their grandmother’s fellow. (108) It was him that they killed, and they took the meat so that their grandmother would eat it. (109) The food was ready. (110) She said to them in Spanish, “get up my grandchildren, the food is ready.” (111) “Oh gramma, my head aches, “I’m exhausted”, they say in Spanish. (112) So, she began to eat alone. (113) “Sleep now!” she said in Pipil, “go to sleep!” (114) They went to sleep again. (115) The iron-toothed-old-woman began to eat the meat. (116) Afterwards they said, “how did you find the meat, grandmother?” (117) “Delicious my sons, delicious my sons, soft.” (118) “That was our bogeyman’s flesh”, they said. (119) “Oh, it was shit, it was shit, oh.” (120) She felt like throwing up, but she couldn’t.
	(121) “Ha, I know that the youngest child has advised you, he has advised you.” (122) “Well, that’s all right, so be it, but I’m going to kill that youngest child.” (123) She was wanting to kill him. (124) She went to sharpen her teeth, there by the edge of the canyon she sharpened her teeth so she could eat the little boy. (125) She was going to bite him.
	(126) The other said to the lizard, “look lizard”, in Spanish he said, “go see what my gramma is doing,” he said in Spanish. (127) “I’ll go”, it was the lizard; the lizard went. (128) He went by and saw that she was sharpening her teeth. (129) The lizard returned. (130) “She hit me with a rock”, he said. (131) “The piece of tile stuck here (pointing to the back of the neck); she found a piece of tile and she busted my head.” (132) “OK, but my grandmother is going to see what’s going to happen.”
	(133) Later in the evening she was coming with her wash. (134) They said, “look grandmother, we’re going to make a bet; whoever passes his/her piss on top of the house we don’t want to kill.” (135) “Whoever does not get his/her piss there we are going to kill.” (136) Then the men began, “chirr”; another went, “irr”. (137) “Now grab our grandmother; let her pass her piss.” (138) She took off running, she closed herself in the house. (139) They tied the rings (of the door) and set fire to the house. (140) There the iron-toothed-old-woman met her end. 

Appendix 1

Other Varieties of Nahua Sometimes Called "Pipil"
		
	Given the confusion and controversy occasioned by the use of "Pipil" in reference to other southern varieties of Nahua and by claims that these and Central American Pipil may be close genetic relatives, it is important to compare these in  greater detail. This examination is intended to help resolve the issues. The forms compared are from Soyaló, Chiapas (principal examples from Reyes 1961a, complemented  by forms from Van Zantwijk 1963, cited in brackets); from Huehuetán, Chiapas (Bruce and Robles Uribe 1969, with a few forms cited from Knab 1980 in brackets); from Pueblo Nuevo Solistahuacán, Chiapas (Navarrete 1975); from Bochil, Chiapas (Van Zantwijk 1963); from Salamá, Guatemala (Stoll 1958[1884]); from Pajapan, Veracruz (Garcia de Leon  1976); from Mecayapan, Veracruz (Wolgemuth 1981); and from San Felipe Río Nuevo, Cardenas, Tabasco (Rendón n.d.). First a comparative word list is presented, followed by comments. The abbreviations used are:

	Mec	=	Mecayapan, Veracruz
	Paj	=  	Pajapan, Veracruz
	RN   	=  	San Felipe Rio Nuevo, Cardenas, Tabasco
	Soy 	=  	Soyaló, Chiapas
	PNS  	=  	Pueblo Nuevo Solistahuacán, Chiapas
	Boc  	=  	Bochil, Chiapas
	Hue  	=  	Hueuetán, Chiapas (from Soconusco)
	Sal  	= 	Salamá, Guatemala (from Baja Verapaz) 
	Pip  	=  	Pipil, El Salvador (C, SD)

		1		2		3		4
		ant		ask		avocado     	basket
Mec		tsi:ka?		-tahtani	awaka?      	chikiwi?
Paj  		tsi:gat		tahtani		           	 	chigiwit
RN		tsi:gat				    
Soy  		tsikatH		tahtani		awakatH     	chikiwatH
PNS			  
Boc 
Hue
Sal  		tsígat		-tatáne		           		chiquit  
Pip  		tsi:kat		tahtani		a:wakat     	chikiwit

		

		5		6		7		8
		to bathe	bean		bitter		black
Mec  		-a:ltiá		aha:yo:/ 	chichi:/	pi:sti/
Paj  		m-a:ltia	ahayo				pistikRN				ahayo/t			pistik
Soy  		m-alti		etH		chichik		tíltik
		('pret.'?)	(et)
PNS				et				títik
Boc				(et)
Hue				chene/
Sal  		-álti		et				tíltik
Pip  		m-a:ltia	e:t		chichik		ti:ltik
		
		9		10		11		12		13
		blood		bone 		bottle gourd	to burn		to buy
Mec  		esti		omi/ 		tekoma/	tatiá		-kowa
								(t.v.)
Paj  		esti		omit 		tegomat	tata		-goa
								(i.v.)
RN		esti/		-omi				tata/		-gowa/
Soy  		esti		umitH 		tekumatH	tata/		-kuwa-
				(umit)
PNS				umi/
Hue
Sal  		este		úmit 		tekúmat			-kúa
Pip  		esti		u:mit 		temumat	tata (i.v.)	kuwa
								tatia (t.v.)
	
		14		15		16		17	        
		to call		cane		to climb	to close
Mec 		-no:tsa		owa/		tehkawi	-tsakwa
Paj  		notsa		wat		tehkawi	tsaba
RN						tehko		-tsakwa
Soy 		-nutsa		uwatH		tehku		-tsakwa-
			(uwat)
PNS
Boc
Hue
Sal				úwat		-téhu		-tsákwaPip 		(w)al-nu:tsa  	u:wat		tehku		tsakwa

		18		19		20
	cold		comb		to come
Mec 		sese:/		tsikawa:s	wi:/
Paj 		sese:k		pachoás	-wi:ts ('pres.')
					-wa:la ('pret.') 
RN  		se:sek		-pachowasti	witsSoy 		sísik		tsikawasti	-wala
	(seseltik)			('pret.' ?)
PNS			    
Boc
Hue
Sal 		sésik		chikawáste	-wála
					("to return")
Pip 		sesek		tsi:kuwas	wi:ts ('pres.')
					wa:la(:)h ('pret.')    
	
		21		22		23		24
		corn		cornfield	to cry		to cut
	(maize)			(milpa) 
Mec 		táyo:l		mi:hli		cho:ka		teki
Paj 		tayo:l		mihli		choga		tegi
RN  		sinti/				cho:ga/
Soy 		táuli		mili/		chuka		teki
	(taulli)
PNS 		tauli
Boc 		taulli
Hue 		tigol/teg
Sal 		tayugal/	mili		-chúga
	tahuli
Pip 		tawiyal	  	mi:l		chu:ka		teki

		25		26		27		28		               
	day		day after	deer		to descend
			tomorrow
Mec				wi:pta		masa:/		temowa
Paj 		tahkoga	wikta		masat		temo:a
	(de dia)					      
RN				deh wihta	masat		kwatemo
Soy 		tunaliaxka	(wipta)		masatH		temu
	(tunalli)			(masat)
PNS						masat
Boc
Hue
Sal 		tik túnal			masat		-tému
Pip				wi:pta		masa:t		temu
		29		30		31		32
		to die		to do,		dog		dough,
				to make			corn dough
Mec		miki		-chi:wa		pe:lo		tixti
Paj		migi		chi:a/chi:w-/	pelo		tisti
				chi:h
RN		mi/kiya/	chiawa/			tixti
				-chih
Soy		-miki		-chiwa-	pelu/		texti
PNS						chucho/
						chuchu
Boc
Hue		(mika)				gínyu
		(died already?)		(ginyu)
Sal		-míge		-chiwa
Pip		miki		chiwa		pe:lu		tixti
		
		33		34		35		36		37
	to drink	dry		ear		ear of		to eat
							corn
Mec		k-onia		wa:k-to/	-nakas		e:lo:/		-kwa
Paj		oni		wa:ktok	-nagas		e:lot		-ba:
RN		-ati/		wak-tok	-nagas				ta-kwa
Soy		-onih		waki		-nakas		elut		ta-kwa
		(pret.)
PNS
Boc										(ta-kwa-lis)
Hue
Sal		k-úni		wak-tuk	nágas		elut		 ta-kwa
Pip		uni		wa:k-tuk	-nakas		e:lut		-kwa/ta-kwa

		38		 39		40		41
		egg		 to enter  	to extinguish	eye
Mec		-teksis		 kalaki    	se:wiá (t.v.)	i:x
Paj		teksis				sewi		-i:xtotolo
RN		teksisti/					-ixtolo:lo
Soy		webototutuli   	-kalaki   	sewi/		-ixko
PNS								-ixko
Boc
Hue
Sal		tutúltit						íxku
Pip		teksis-ti	kalaki    	se:wi (i.v.)	i:x
						se:wia (t.v.)

		42		43		44		45  
		far		father		fiesta		fire
						(ceremony)
Mec		wehka		-tah		ilwi/		ti/-t
Paj		wehka		-tah		ilwit		tit
RN				-tah				ti/t/ti:t
Soy		wehka		tahtsi		ilwitH		máskut
		(wehka)	(-tahtsin)		 	(maskut)
PNS
Boc
Hue
Sal		wéha						múskut
Pip		wehka 		-te:ku		ilwit		ti(:)t

		46		47		48		49
		flower		foot		four		to give
Mec		xo:chi/		ikxi		na:wi		-maka
Paj		xuchit		ikxi		nawi		maga
RN				no-kxi/			ma:ga
				"my foot"
Soy		suchitH		-ikxi		nawi/     	-makilih
		(xuchit)					(pret. applic.)
PNS				mo-kxi		nawi/
				"your foot"
Boc
Hue								-maga
Sal				mu-kx		nawi		-maga
				"your foot"
Pip		xu:chit		(i)kxi		na:wi		maka

		50		51		52		53		54
		to go		gourd		to grind  	hair		hand
				(jicara)    
Mec		yawi		wahkal		-tis		tsónkal		-ma:
Paj		yawi		wahkal		tisi		-tsongal	-ma:
RN		yawi-				tisi		-tsonga		-man
Soy		yawi/		xikali/		tesi		-uhmío/	-ma
PNS
Boc		ye'niyaz
		"I'll go"
Hue
Sal		níu		xígal				tsúngal		ma
	"I go"
Pip		yawi		xi:kal/		tisi		-tsunkal	-mey
				wahkal	

		55		56		57		58		59        
		to have		head		to hear  	heart		here
Mec		-piá		tsontekon    	-kaki		-a:lmah	nigah
Paj		-pia		-tsontegon   	-gagi		-alma		nigah
RN				-tsontegon   	-gagi				nigan
Soy		-pia/		tsunteko     	kaki		-yulu/		nika
PNS								tu-yul
								"your heart"  
Boc										nikan
Hue
Sal		-pía		tsuntéu				yúlo		nígaPip		-piya		tsuntekumat/ 	kaki		-yu(:)l(u)	ni(:)kan
				-tsuntekun
		
		60		61		62		63		64
		hot		house		I	     	incense	to 	kill
Mec		toto:ni/	kahli/		neh      		kópal		-miktia 
				-cha:n	    
Paj		toto:nik	gahli/gal-/	naha				miktia
				chanti
RN		toto:nik	-gahli		naha				-miktih-ia/
Soy		tutunki		-chan		net				mihteh (pret.?) 	(tunaltik)							(pret.?)   
PNS				kali		ne/
Boc
Hue
Sal		tutunge		káli/		net/ne/  	kúval
				cha		newa
Pip		tutu:nik	kal/		naha     	kupal		miktia
				-chan
	
		65		66		67		68		69
		land		to laugh	leached corn  	to leave   	louse
						(nixtamal)		  
Mec		ta:hli		wetska		nextámal	ki:sa		atimi/
Paj		ta:hli		i:xwetska	ne:xtamal	gisa		a:tin
RN		tahli		wetska
Soy		tali		wetska		nextámali	-kisa		atemitH
		(talli)
PNS
Boc
Hue
Sal		táli						-kísa		atémet
Pip		ta:l		wetska		nextamal	ki:sa		atimet

		70		71		72		73
		man		mat		meat	   	moon
				(petate)			month
Mec		ta:ga/		petat			   	me:s (month)
								to-ye:-tsin (moon) 
Paj		ta:gat		petat     	nagat     	me:sti
RN		tagat				nagat     	me(:)st' (moon)
								mesti/ (month)
Soy		takatH		petatH    	nakatH    	mesti
		(tagat)				(nakat)		(mesti)
PNS		taka/				nakat
Boc
Hue		tg/
		tée
Sal		tágat		pédat		nágat		méste
Pip		ta:kat		petat		nakat		me:tsti

		74		75		76		76		77
		mother		mountain	mouth		much,		mud
								many
Mec		-ye/		tepe:yoh	-te:n		mia/		soki/
Paj		-ye:		tepe:t		-te:n		miag-eh 	sogit
RN		-ye:		te:pet		-ten						 
Soy		nántsi		tepetH		-tenko   	miak    		sukitH
	(nantsin)	(tepet)
PNS
Boc
Hue
Sal		nants		tévet		ti		míak		sukit (clay)
Pip		-na:n		tepe:t		te:n		miyak		sukit

		78		79		80		81	82		83	
		name		night		nose		one   	owner 		paper
Mec		-to:ka:/	yowal		-ya/		se:   	-te:ko    	a:ma/
Paj		-toga		tayoa		-yak		se    	-tego     	a:mat
RN		toga		tayowa/	-yak		se:
Soy		-tuka		yuali		-yaka		se/   	-teku     	amat∂H∂
				(yualli)							mamat
PNS								se/
Boc				yowalli
Hue								tse
Sal		túga/		yuwali		yag		se			amat
		tua									amate
Pip		-tu:kay/	tayuwa		-yak/		se:   	-te:ku-yu 	a:mat 			tu:key				yaka-					(paper) 
	
		84		85		86		87		88        
		to plant  	pot		quern		rabbit		raw,      
			(olla)		(metate)			green
Mec		-to:ka		ko:mi/		meta/				xoxówigo  
Paj		to:ga		gomit		metat				xoxoktik  
RN		-to:ga		go:mit				kwagege/	 xoxo:wik										"raw"              										xoxoktik             
										"green"
Soy		tuka		kúmitH   	metatH				xuxuk      
PNS								tusti			        
Boc
Hue
Sal		-tuga				médat		tuxti		xúxug
Pip		tu:ka		ku:mit		metat		tuchti		xuxuwik

		89		90		91		92		93
		road		salt		sandal		to say		to see
Mec		ohti		ista/		-ga/		-ihtowa	-ita (to see)
										-chiya (to wait) 
										ta-cha (to look)                    
Paj		ohti		istat		xántia		ihtoa		-ita
RN		ohti/								tachixtok
										(from chiya)
Soy		uhtika		istatH		kaite/		-ihtuh		 tachia		(uhti)		(istat)		(caiti)		(Pret.)
PNS   
Boc
Hue
Sal		úhti		ístat		kákte				-ida
Pip		uhti		istat		kakti		ilwia    	 	ita (to see)
										chiya (to look, 											to wait)
		94		95		96		97				             
		to sell		to shout	to sit		six
Mec		-namaka	tsahtsi		mo-ta:liá   
Paj		ta-namaga-ni  	tsahtsi		mo-ta:li
		(seller) 
RN						mu-talia/
Soy		-namaka	tsahtsi		mu-tali		chiwase
						(pret.?)   	(chikwasen) 
PNS								chikwasen
Boc
Hue
Sal				-tsáhtsi		mu-táli		chikwás
				(to call)
Pip		namaka	tsahtsi		mu-ta:lia   	chikwasi(:)n
		98		99		100		101		102          
		to sleep		snail		snake		sour		to stand, 
										to rise
Mec		kochi		xote		kowa:/		xoko:/		mo-ketsa
Paj		-gochi		xote		goa:t		xogo:t		mo-getsa
RN		-gochi		a:tete		golot				mu-getsa/
Soy		-kuchi-		xuti/		kuat		xukutH   	mo-ketsa
						(kuat)
PNS						kua/
Boc
Hue
Sal		-kúchi-				kúat				mu-kétsa
Pip		kuchi		xuti		ku:wat		xukut		mu-ketsa

		103		104		105		106
		stone		sun		to swallow  	to sweep
Mec		te/-t		to:nati:/    	-tolowa	tachpa:na
Paj		tet		to:nati	   	ta-tloloa   	(ochpanwas "broom")
RN		te/t/tet  	to:na:ti(n)			(ixpanwasti "broom")
Soy		tetH		túnali		tuluh-		taxpana
		(tet)		(tunalli)    	(pret.)
PNS		tet		tunali
Boc
Hue
Sal		tet		tunal
Pip		tet		tu:nal	   	tulua		ta-chpa:na/t-uchpa:na

		107		108		109		110	111	112
		ten		 there  		this		thorn	three	to tie
Mec				 nepa		inín		witsti   e:yi	-ilpia
Paj				 nepa		hi:n		witsti   yei	-ilpia
RN						hi:		  
Soy		matahti		 nepa/  	inen		wisti/  yey	-ilpih
		(matakti)							(pret.)
PNS		matahti							ye/
Boc
Hue									eyi
Sal				néva/				wíhti	yey     	-ílpe
				ba
Pip		mahtakti	ne:pa  		ini		witsti	ye:y    	ilpia

		113		114		115		116		117
		today		tomato		tomorrow	tortilla		town
Mec		a:man		toma/		mo:sta		táxkal		a:ltepe:/
Paj				tomat				taxkal		a:ltepe:t
RN		a:man
Soy		axka		tumatH   	musta		taxkali		chinamitH
				(musta)			(taxkalli)	(chinamit)
PNS										taxkali
Boc						mozta
Hue								chitáwi/
								xtwi
Sal		áxka				musta		tax		chinámit
		"now"
Pip		a:xa:n		tumat		mu:sta		tamal		tuchan/
								(taxkal "rigua,	     te:chan
								fresh-corn tortilla"

		118		119	120	121		122		123
		tumpline   	two	up	vine		to want  	to wash
					(arriba)				   
Mec		mekapal	o:me	ahko	meka/		-neki		-pa:ka
Paj		megapal	o:me	ahko	ba-megat	negi		pa:ga
RN				ome	ahko/	kwa-me:gat
Soy		mekapal	ume/	ahku	mehatH		-negi/   	-paka-
								-neki
PNS				ume/				-neki
Boc
Hue				ome				-negi
Sal		mekawal	úme/	áhu
			úmi
Pip		mekapal	u:me	ahku	mekat		neki		pa:ka

		124		125		126		127		128
		water		wet		where		white		wind
Mec		a:/-t/		papachki/	ka:n		ista:/		eheka/
		-a:-				gan
Paj		a:t		papach(k)ik			ista:k		ehegat
RN		a/t		papaxtih-ia	kampa		ista:k		ehegat
				"to wet"	(campa)
Soy		atH (at)		paltik				istak		hekatH
PNS   
Boc						kampa
Hue						kampa/kamp
Sal		at		-paltitik	káva		ístak		ehiegat
				"to wet"
Pip		a:t		ahwi “towet”	ka:n		ista(:)k  	ehekat
		129		130		131		132		133
		woman		wood		year         	yesterday	you
Mec		siwa:/		kwahkwáwil  	xiwi/				teh
Paj		soa:t		bahbawil	xiwit        	yalwa		teha
RN		sowa:t								taha
Soy		siwatH		kowitH		xiwit	     	yalwa/      	tet
				(kot)				(yalwa)
PNS		siwa		kowi/						tet
Boc   
Hue
Sal		siwat		kot (tree)			yalwa		tet
Pip		siwa:t		kwawit		se: xiwit    	ya:luwa	taha
						"last year" 

	To begin with, some clarifications of these data are in order. They are written as in the original sources, only transliterated to follow the Pipil practical orthography. Soyaló and Pueblo Nuevo Solistahuacán contain an automatic glottal stop after final vowels; this is found in many varieties of Nahua, including Pipil, but not written because it is predictable.  
	Intervocalic k is also voiced in several varieties. However, this is an independent change, not useful for classification. It is variable in Pipil, some dialects having no voicing of k, while others have considerable, e.g. Santo Domingo de Guzmán with voicing intervocalically, initially and after n (cf. section 1.4 for more details).  Huehuetán has a voiced fricative [] intervocalically, e.g. /maa/ "to give", which is also found in some other dialects. Soyaló seems to give preference to voiceless k, but in variation at times with [], e.g. /neki/ /nei/ "to want". In Salamá, Guatemala the change to voiced fricatives intervocalically has apparently reached all the stops, not just k. This is not always obvious in Stoll's (1958 (1884)) orthography, but it is not difficult to see when a few forms are compared. For p there are examples such as tevet "mountain" (cf. tepe:t ‘of others’), neva / ba "there" (cf. ne:pa ‘elsewhere’), and cáva "where" (cf. kampa ‘of others’). These representations with b and v suggest a phonetic voiced bilabial fricative [b]. For t there are such examples as -ida "to see" and medat "quern (metate)", where orthographic d could suggest either a voiced fricative [] or a voiced stop [d].  Examples for k vary between orthographic g and , as in tuga / tua "name", niga "here", etc. Salamá also suffered another change with k; it was lost after h, e.g. weha "far" (cf.  Pipil wehka), ahu "up" (cf. Pipil ahku), tehu "to go up" (cf. Pipil tehku), etc. Pre-consonantally Salamá also changed ts to s and ch to x, but this change is found in many other Nahua dialects, e.g. Pajapan. Salamá also lost final -n.  Pajapan has changed kw to b, a phenomenon found is several other Gulf Coast dialects.
	Mecayapan, like many other kinds of Nahua, has an automatic phonetic glottal stop after final vowels, but the -t and -k in final position have also changed to glottal stop.   Nevertheless, the sources say that these two kinds of glottal stops, one automatic after final vowels, the other from final -t or -k, are distinct, the one from final -t and -k being stronger (Wolgemuth 1969, Canger 1980:70). Mecayapan monosyllabic forms ending in -t, however, have not undergone the full change to glottal stop, but rather have inserted a glottal stop before the -t, e.g. a:/-t "water", te/-t "stone", ti/-t "fire". Finally, Mecayapán words ending in -i(y)a or -o(w)a have changed with the  accent  on  the final vowel, -ia and -oa. It is to be hoped that this comparison will shed light on the controversial claims about possible Pipil closer genetic connections with these varieties. As discussed in Chapter 1 and in Appendix 2, it is clear from these data and others that Pipil shares certain traits with some of these, but that on the whole it is quite distinct. 

3. Pipil and the classification of Nahua

	With the arguments present in Chapter 1 that Central American Pipil must in some way be considered distinct from other Nahua varieties, the question is bagged, just what is the position of Pipil within the Nahua subgroup and how does it relate to other dialects? In the classification proposed here, Nahua consists of three “branches” (independent languages): Pochutec, Pipil (of Central America), and Core Nahua (to which all other varieties belong, including the so-called “Classical” – alias Colonial – Nahuatl (CN) of the 16th century and the various extant dialects of Mexico. Other classifications which have been proposed generally coincide with this one in considering Pochutec as the most divergent member of the group, a separate language. Nevertheless, several of the proposals differ in that they group Pipil among the dialects of Core Nahua or as a subdivision of some other imagined Nahua dialect arrangement.
	These claims require some examination, although all have been separated by Una Canger’s studies. For that reason, detailed discussion of the dialect traits upon classification has been based is reserved for later, for the presentation of Canger’s, I present only the main claims with respect to the position of Pipil.
	Swadesh (1954-1955:179) held Pochutec and Mexuhca (i.e. Classical Nahuatl) to be distinct languages, where “todas las demás forman una red dialectal”, specified in more detail as”

Los datos indican que el nahua se divide en tres partes representadas respectivamente por el pochuteco, el nahua clásico o mexihca, y no hay dialectos transicionales  entre el pochuteco y los demás, ni tampoco entre el mexihca y los otros. Aparte de los dos tipos aislados, el resto forma una sola red dialectal con diferencias paulatinas entre pueblos y pueblo desde la Huasteca hasta San Salvador (Pipil) y desde Veracruz hasta el Pacífico. (Fernández de Miranda, Swadesh, and Weitlaner 1960:141)

	Unfortunately, Swadesh and his associates did not present the evidence upon which their proposal was based, but, as we shall see presently, the facts do not support such classification.
	Juan Hasler in several publications (1958a, 1958b, 1961, 1975, 1976, and 1977) invoked a quadripartite view of Nahua dialectology, with his Eastern branch containing both “Pipil” (which for him includes Central American Pipil and varieties from southern Veracruz) and Pochitec, among others. Of this “Pipil” he said:

Los subdialectos meridionales del nahua del éste han recibidoa veces el tratamiento de idioma pipil. Con esto no puedo estar de acuerdo: el pipil es un subdialecto – el más interessante si se quiere – de nahua del éste, y posiblemente el que de manera más directa se conecte con el pre-nahua. (Hasler 1958ª:338)

	Nevertheless, the traits presented by Hasler do not support his Eastern group, or his classification in general (cf. Canger 1980, 1983; see bellow).
	Yolanda Lastra de Suárez (1974) presented a different classification, which she called a “preliminary typology”. She grouped Pipil with southern Mexican dialects under the label “Golfo” (Gulf), which includes: Acula, Los Tuztlas (sic), Mecayapan, Pajapan (Veracruz); Nahuazontla and Xalacapan (Puebla), Tuxtepec (Oaxaca); Soconusco, Oteapan, Cosoleacaque, Cupilco, Boquiapan, Jalupa; Soyaló (Chiapas); Acaguasastlan (sic, read Acasaguastlan, Guatemala); Nahuizalco, Izalco, Sonsonate, Cuzcatlan (El Salvador); San Pedro (Durango). Of Pipil she offers:
		
Fonológicamente Centro América se agrupa con el Golfo, pero en léxico parece tener mucha influencia del Centro y al mismo tiempo otras palabras que le son características. (Lastra de Suárez 1974:392)	

	Letra’s main criterion for this classification was the preterit formed in -k. However, this trait is of no diagnostic value for classification (Canger 1980, see below).
	Similar views have been presented by García de León (1976:9) Luckenbach and Levy (1980), and Fowler (1981), based upon glottochronological counts. I return to these claims below. 
	Una Canger’s (1980, 1983) classification is by far the most accurate, most detailed, and best supported with linguistic evidence to date. It is (Canger 1980:16):

A.	Pochutec
B.	General Aztec
	I 	CENTRAL
			a. La Huasteca
			b. North Puebla
	Valley of Mexico
	Morelos
	Traxcala
	Central Puebla
	Central Guerrero

	II 	PERIPHERAL
a.	Western
i	Jalisco, Colima, Durango
ii	Michoacan
iii	Almoloa
iv	North Guerrero
b.	Eastern
i		Sierra de Puebla
ii		East Puebla (Chilac)
iii		South Guerrero
iv		Isthmus
v		Pipil

	Canger calls her classification “tentative” and “unsatisfactory because branching charts cannot be used to show the complex relationships which usually exist among dialects” (Canger 1980:16). In clarifying her Central vs. Peripheral division, which she considers “fundamental”, Canger indicates that it is “founded basically on one isogloss: the presence versus the absence of the stem final vowel in the perfect of the verbs” (Canger 1983:30). However, she does not believe this division to be old, no more that 500 years (Canger 1983:31). That is, the defining features of central dialects are not “due to common inheritance, but rather to late influence from one prestigious and dominating dialect; and they have had the function precisely of unifying the dialects” (Canger 1983:32). In short, “peripheral dialects were defined negatively simply by not having the features diagnostic for the Central dialects” (Canger 1983:28).
	I will examine the traits which Canger (and others before her) have presented as support for placing Pipil within her Eastern group (part of the larger Peripheral group). While she did not intend her classification to be understood as genetic, I will discuss the implications of her dialect traits for a genetic classification of Pipil, showing the complications for any proposed closer classification of Pipil with Mexican varieties of Nahua.
	Canger points out that much attention has been paid in previous classifications to the presence or absence of the suffix –ki ‘preterite’ and to the use or non-use of the prefix o:- in ‘past’ constructions, but she demonstrates that these two features are not useful for defining the dialects. For her, the loss or preservation of the stem-final vowel of verb roots in the ‘preterite’ (cf. section 2.2) is the most important criterion in the classification of all Nahua dialects. For example, from a proto form *ki:sa-ka “he/she/it left” the dialects end up with the following possible forms: ki:s-ki, ki:s, ki:sa-k, with or without the ‘past’ suffix o:-, depending on the dialect. The dialects which lose the final final vowel of verb roots in the ‘preterite’ are of the Central group; preservation of this vowel is the diagnostic criterion of Peripheral dialects, including Pipil in her view (Canger 1978:4-5). Nevertheless, Canger says that some peripheral dialects have recently lost or have begun to lose the final vowel in these forms due to the general tendency toward final-vowel loss in Nahua (Canger 1978:4). Specifically of Pipil, based on her reading of Schultze-Jena (1935), she says:

Schultze-Jena’s description of Pipil (1935) gives the impression that vowel loss in verb forms has only recently begun to take place (Canger 1980:75).

The Pipil forms in ki are identical with those found in La Hasteca and with those which all Central dialects have had at an earlier stage. But a number of Pipil variants in –C-ki and –Vk and the many cases with the stem final vowel retained show that Pipil has gone through a development independent of that common to all the Central dialects (Canger 1980:76).

	However, with respect to Pipil, this criterion fails, or better said, the interpretation of Schultze-Jena’s data has led Canger to an inadequate view of Central American Pipil. It must be granted that the nature of vowel-loss deserves study and that further clarification of Canger’s interpretation would be useful. Nevertheless, vowel loss in these verb forms appears not to be a recent development, but rather a very old one. The most plausible explanation of the variation between forms without the final vowel (-C(-ki)) and forms with it (-V-k) is that the vowel’s presence, where it occurs in Pipil dialects, is due to recent analogical changes based on present-tense forms (which always contain the vowel). For example forms such as ni-k-pix-ki “I had it” ni-k-chix-ki “I saw it”, ti-k-ihix-ki “you hated it”, and ni-k-u:x “I shelled it” (from –piy-a, -chiy-a, -ihiy-a, and –u:y-a, respectively) show vowel loss to be old, given that the morphophonemic change of final and preconsonantal y to x is ancient (from Proto-Nahua times, cf. Campbell and Langacker 1978) and is no longer productive (cf. section 2.2). The explanation of a variant form such as ni-k-piya-k (SD) “I had it” instead of the more usual and old ni-k-pix-ki (C) is that the former is of recent analogical formation (occurring with much less frequency than the original forms without the stem-final vowel, probably based on the class of verbs which in Pipil and almost all other varieties of Nahua does not lose the stem-final vowel in the preterite (cf. section 2.2, 3.7.3) and by the vowel’s presence in the ‘present-tense’ forms. Actually, the class of verbs which loses the stem-final vowel in Pipil is by far the most ample, with approximately twice the number of members as the class which retain the vowel.
	Consequently, given that vowel loss is very old, Pipil cannot convincingly be considered closely connected with Canger’s Eastern group (part of the larger Peripheral grouping) on the basis of this criterion alone. This conclusion is seen with clarity when Pipil verbs are compared with forms from Mecayapan, Veracruz (often called “Isthmus” Nahua, part of Canger’s Eastern dialect group), which is incidentally the dialect many have considered most closely related to Central American Pipil. Compare the 3rd person singular preterite forms; note that final –k has become -/ in Mecayapan (examples from Canger 1980: 71):

		Mecayapan			Pipil
		kochi-/			kuch-ki	slept
		tegi-/ / te/			tek		cut
		pa:/ (CN pa:ka-k)		pa:ka-k		washed
		migi-/ /mi/			miki-k		died
		ko:wa-/			kuh-ki		bought
		ti:si-/				tis-ki		ground
		ki:sa-/				ki:s-ki		left
		no:tsa-/ called			nu:ts-ki	spoke
		miso:ta-/			m-isu:ta-k	vomited
						    (cf. CN o-ni-iso:tla-k “I vomited”)
		pata:n / pata:ni-/		pata:ni-k	flew
						    (cf. pata:n-tuk “flown”)
	In summary, with respect to –C-ki or –V-k, Pipil preserves a state very much like that found in Classical Nuhuatl; i.e., in general Pipil has undergone vowel loss in the preterite (-C-ki) in the verb classes which permit it and in this respect Pipil is distinct from the Eastern dialects (of the Peripheral group) which do not permit this vowel loss. 
	A sober assessment of this fact leaves Pipil distinct, but, unfortunately, does not demonstrate that there could not have been a closer connection between these two varieties. If they had been closely related, Isthmus Nahua could still have undergone the analogical restoration of the stem-final vowel (if that is indeed what happened) after Pipil had separated. That is, to show that the two belong together one must demonstrate shared innovations. Since vowel loss in the ‘preterite’ is apparently not shared (which is Canger’s principal classificatory trait), if a connection is to be demonstrated it will have to be based on other shared innovations. It is to Canger’s other shared traits that I now turn. 
	The other features which Canger presented for her Eastern dialects do not serve to prove that Pipil belongs genetically to the group, either. It should be recalled that she did not intend them to have a genetic interpretation, but if Pipil is to be placed historically, their weight for genetic classification needs to be assessed.
	First, Pipil and Isthmus Nuhua share the plural morpheme of independent personal pronouns, -me-t (Pipil) / -me-h (Isthmus), while others tend to have –tin or –n. Nevertheless, the suffix –me-h is found in various other, non-Eastern dialects, such as La Huasteca, which is considered Central (Canger 1978:13, Hasler 1961:459). For example, Guerrero dialects (Xalitla, Copalillo, Zitala, Acatlan, and Xalatzala) have tahwameh “we” (Canger 1980:96). Thus, the following forms exist for “we”:

		tehemet 		Pipil
		tohomen		Jalupa, Tabasco
		tehwameh		Zaragoza, Veracruz
		tohwameh		Cozoleacaque
		tahameh		Jaltipan, Veracruz
		tahame:n		Mecayapan, Veracruz (Wolgemuth 1980:192)
		tehame:h		Mecayapan (García de León 1976:26)
		tehameh		Pajapan, Veracruz
		tahamet		Acula, Veracruz
		tahan			Boquiapan, Tabasco
		tawa:n			Cupilco, Veracruz
		tehban			Tuxtlas, Veracruz
		tahwameh		Zitlala, Guerrero
		te/wa:n		North Puebla
		tehwah			Tlaxcala
		tefa			Zoquitlán
		tehwa			Sierra de Puebla
		(Canger 1980:96-7; García de León 1976:26).

	This list shows that there are dialects which are not of the Eastern group that have the –me-h / -me-t ending and that there are Eastern (Isthmus) dialects which lack it (e.g. Boquiapan, Cupilco, Tuxtlas, etc.). It is very possible that –me-h / -me-t was the original Proto-Nohua plural ending in pronouns, which would mean that it represents a retention in those dialects that have it, not a shared innovation. Therefore, these dialects could have retained the trait regardless of their actual classification by simply not having changed the prior existing form. In any case, its geographical distribution shows that this feature is not diagnostic for the classification of Nahua dialects and has no direct relevance to the position of Pipil.
	Pipil, the Sierra Puebla, and Isthmus Nahua also share the retention of inicial e-, which changed to ye- in many other dialects, as in, for example, e:-t(l) “bean” instead of ye:-t(l). But certain other dialects also preserve e-, e.g. La Huasteca, Jalisco, etc., and even in Classical Nahuatl e varied with ye. The e- is a retention of a Proto-Nhua characteristic; the change of e- to ye- is a relatively recent innovation. Therefore, Pipil and others could share e- irrespectively of their classification (cf. Canger 1978:8).
	These three, Pipil, Sierra de Puebla, and Isthmus Nahua, also share another trait, the preservation of the root-final vowel in the words toto(:)nik “hot” and xoxo:wik “green”; cf. CN toto:nki and xoxo:wki (Canger 1978:8). This attribute is not diagnostic for the classification, either, since, La Huasteca Nahua also has it and, moreover, because it represents a retention of the original form which could be shared without any historical connection after the split up of Proto-Nahua. The loss of the root-final vowel represents an innovation in the dialects which underwent it. In any case, it is also possible that Pipil form tutu:nk-a:yu-t “fever” evidences the change.
	These three varieties share yet another trait; they have changed the *tl of Proto-Nahua to t (cf. Campbell and Langacker 1978), but this change is so natural that it very easily could have taken place independently, as is suggested by the fact that a number of other dialects also share this change (cf. Canger 1980:88-9).
	Canger also pointed out that these three (Pipil, Sierra de Puebla, and Isthmus Nahua) also tend to lose the absolutive suffix after-l (Canger 1978:13), but the circumstances of this loss vary in each of the three and also, the same tendency is found in certain other dialects, e.g. in Tlaxcala Nahua (Canger 1978:13). In Pipil the absolutive has been lost completely with roots ending in –l, but also it tends to be lost in other environments. For example, one of its allomorphs, -ti, occurs after other consonants (not –l) but is limited for the most part to monosyllabic forms, save a few exceptions (see section 3.1.1). In Isthmus Nahua the absolutive allomorph that occurs after final –l (i.e. –li) has been lost only in polysyllabic nouns, while in Sierra de Puebla Nahua it was lost in the same environment and also in monosyllabic nouns with a long vowel. Had the loss of absolutive been historically shared, the only portion of it that one could assume to be genetic would be the suppression of the allomorph after root-final –l in polysyllabic forms – but not even this small portion of it is useful for genetic classification, given that Tlaxcala Nahua also shares that much of the loss. 
	Canger also pointed out traits shared only by Pipil and Isthmus Nahua. These may be more important, although their significance for genetic classification is not easily determined. Among these, she cites an Isthmus construction with nemi plus a main verb which results in a kind of progressive: nemi ni-takwa “I am eating”. In Pipil, this progressive construction is composed of a clear auxiliary verb, nemi, which means “to be” in other contexts. However, the constructions meaning and function in Isthmus Nahua varies with the local dialects. For example, García de León translates it as “go (about) doing” (Sp. andar haciendo) in Pajapan, Veracruz, where he describes the constructions as a “frase verbal continuative”:
nemi mawiltia “anda jugando”. El uso de esta frase sustituye en mucho al uso del sufijo continuativo –tok de los verbos. (García de León 1976:74)
	Here it is composed of a verb nemi “to walk, go” (andar) plus main verb (cf. CN nemi “to live”, nehnemi “to go, walk”). On the other hand, Wolgemuth (1980:107) presents it as a true progressive construction from a verb meaning “to be” as is the case in many other languages of the world, e.g. English “I am eating” or Spanish “estoy comiendo”. Moreover, Isthmus Nahua has a progressive suffix, -tok, as do several other varieties of Nahua, which Pipil lacks. Therefore, while Pipil and Isthmus Nahua share a similarity in this case, it is possible that it is due to independent innovation of the progressive construction, just as was the case with English and Spanish, related languages which independently developed progressives with forms of the verb “to be”. Other dialects also contain auxiliary constructions with nemi, but with it postposed, e.g. mo-laluhti-nemi “(he) goes (about) running” (anda corriendo) in Michoacan Nahua (Beller and Beller 1979:282), wikati-nemi “sings habitually” in La Huasteca Nahua (Sischo 1979:355), while Tetelcingo has an ‘ambulative’ construction, -ti-nemi (Brewer 1969:46), to which CN kwala:n-ti-nemi “to go (around) getting angry” (andar enojándose) may be compared. It is also possible, however, given the greater similarity in form and meaning, that Pipil and Isthmus Nahua share this trait due to some common history; at this time, it is simply unclear.
	Canger’s second feature shared by Pipil and Isthmus Nahua is –pal ‘possession’, e.g. i-pal “his/hers/its”, no-pal / nu-pal “mine”, etc. Other dialects have a cognate name relational noun –pal, but generally with the basic meaning of “by, with, near, by means of, for”. However, these also have contexts with a possessive sense, e.g. CN te:-pal “someone’s” (ajeno). At the same time, Pipil has contexts with the meaning “by, for”, e.g. pal “by, for, in order to” (conjunction), “of, from, by” (possessive directional). It is possible that Pipil and Isthmus Nahua have innovated together the basic sense of possession, but this is by no means clear.
	Finally, Canger (1978:14) presented certain lexical items shared by Pipil and Isthmus Nahua, but these are not shared exclusively by these two varieties (nor by the plus Sierra de Puebla Nahua). For example, koyame-t / kuyame-t “pig” is found in Pipil, Isthmus Nahua, Michoacan, and Quetzalapa; others tend to have pitso-t(l). The form teksis-t(l)i “egg” is found in Pipil, Isthmus, and La Huateca; others have totol-te-t(l), tle-tl, tli-tl, or tlexuch-tli. 
	In sum, these similarities may suggest a possible closer genetic connection between Pipil and Isthmus Nahua (and perhaps these two with the Sierra de Puebla), but their genetic significance is inconclusive and Pipi’s striking differences (cited above) should be kept in mind.
	2. Glottochronology. Several calculations of Nahua glottochronology have been prepared which involve Pipil and upon which claims about Nahua classification have been based, e.g. Swadesh 1954-1955, 1963, 1967, Kaufman 1974, García de León 1976, is at best highly controversial, nevertheless proposals for Pipil based on these calculations should be discussed. To begin with, however, it should be mentioned that glottochronology has been largely discredited, its basic assumptions have been challenged, and its results often proves erroneous (cf. Campbell 1977:62-5).
	García de León has placed Pipil close to Veracruz and Tabascan varieties based on his counts. He says:

En cuanto a las relaciones internas del nahua del Golfo lo más significativo es el hecho de la distancia interna mayor es de 9 siglos mínimos (between Cosoleacaque and Jalupa); en tanto que el pipil salvadoreño sólo difere 6 siglos de Tuxtlas, Jaltipan, Pajapan, Boquiapan y Jalupa, lo cual indica que el primero es producto de un movimiento reciente que se efectuó en tiempos históricos (sólo 2 siglos antes de la Conquista); o bien, que habiéndose movido desde antes, fue hasta 6 siglos que perdió el contacto con la costa del Golfo. No sería nada aventurado suponer que antes del 1300 dC existía una continuidad de grupos nahuas desde Veracruz y Tabasco, hasta Guatemala y El Salvador; pasando por los Altos de Chiapas (dialecto del nahua del que quedaban hasta hace poco hablantes en Soyaló y Bochil) y por la costa del Soconusco (Huehuetán y otros). Probablemente, la expansión de los señorios quichés y cakchiqueles de Guatemala favoreció la separación que explicaría los 6 siglos de divergencia entre el nahua del Golfo y el salvadoreño. (García de León 1976:41)

	García de León presented the Swadesh list of 100 words in various Gulf dialects, but did not include the Pipil words with which he compared them to arrive at his dates,. He calculated that Pipil shares 84% with the Nahua of Los Tuxtlas, Pajapan, Jáltipan (Veracruz), and Boquiapan (Tabasco), a separation of 5.8 minimum centuries. His Gulf Nahua varied from 8 to 13 centuries with respect to “Mehxica” (Classical Nahuatl) and to other Nahua dialects, which compares well with Kaufman’s figure of 11 minimum centuries for General Nahua, i.e. Nahua minus Pochutec (Kaufman 1974:73).
	Luckenbach and Levy (1980), basing their calculations on 25 dialects follow Swadesh (1954-1955) in believing that the inter-dialectal relationships are “properly thought of ‘chains’ or ‘nets’, where each dialect has its closest affinities with its immediate neighbor” (p.456). They support the traditional three-way split in Nahua of “Nahuatl, Nahual, and Nahuat (Pipil), and a variant isolate from Pochutla (= Pochutec) and Xochitlahuaca, Guerrero from the remainder of Nahua at 543 A.D., with their Nahuat (Pipil) node splitting off at 801 A.D. and with “a Nahuat-Nahuatl divergence … calculated at A.D. 1072, and younger intra-dialectical (sic) nodes … found for Nahuat (A.D.1257), Nahual (A.D.1442), and Nahuatl (A.D. 1304 and 1511)” (p.457).
	Fowler’s (1981) calculations correspond to these in several ways. He placed the first split, that of Pochutec from other Nahua, at 15 centuries ago, ca. 500 A.D. He equated the “first Pipil migrations out of Central Mexico into the lowlands of Veracruz and Central America” (pp.539-43) with a group he called “Nahuat” (a t-dialect), which includes Zacapoaxtla, Chicontepec, Tatela, Mecayapan, and El Salvador. He placed this Nahuat migration at ca. 801 and put the beginning of its internal divergence at ca. 965 A.D. This matches Kaufman’s (1974) date of 900 to 1,000 for the Pipil migrations. Specifically, Fowler (1981:536) presents the following years of separation:
	
1142	Salvador and Classical Nahuatl
1097	Salvador and North Puebla
942	Salvador and Milpa Alta
1312	Salvador and Mecayapan
1424	Salvador and Pochutec
993	Salvador and Zacapoaxtla
555	Salvador and Las Tuxtlas
1044	Salvador and Tatela
1044 	Salvador and Chicontepec

	Even if these glottochronological dates could be accepted with confidence, they would still present difficulties of interpretation. For example, given García de León’s 7 centuries of internal variation among his Gulf dialects (e.g. between Macayapan and Jalupa), one must ask how Salvadoran Pipil’s separation could be shorter (only 6 centuries when compared with certain of these dialects; García de León 1976:41). Ethnohistorical sources seem to indicate longer separation, but they, too, are difficult to interpret unambiguously (see below). In any event, successful classification cannot be based on glottochronology.
	The main question is whether the similarities shared by Pipil and other Nahua varieties (especially Isthmus (Gulf) and Sierra de Puebla) indicate a closer genetic relationship, or, whether Pipil’s marked differences mean that it is to be considered a distinct variety with no closer connection to these other dialects. Given the untrustworthy nature of Nahua dialectology and the unclear status of the shared traits, it is possible that the question may have no satisfactory answer. Nevertheless, based on standard criteria classification, I believe that Pipil is a distinct branch. The similarities are either retentions of Proto-Nahua features (which dialects may share by virtue of not having changed regardless of possible closer connections) or are parallel, independent innovations (changes that easily take place independently). On the other hand, Pipil’s differences are not so easily explained away. To repeat just one example, Pipil preserves original –t ‘plural’, which has changed to –h (or corresponding -/) in all others except Pochutec. The means that these others share an innovation which argues that they were still unified when Pipil split off, after which they changed to –h (-/) and subsequently broke up into the extant variants. The only alternative historical explanation that is at all plausible is the possibility that Pipil and certain others were closer relatives, splitting off as a single branch, with Pipil subsequently withdrawing while its remaining close relatives underwent the –t to –h change under influence from other dialects which had formerly so changed. While this is not impossible, one would need to be able to show that Pipil and its assumed closer relatives shared certain innovations before the break up. The similarities are not compelling in this regard. Moreover, there ought to be evidence of the assumed later diffusion of the –t to –h change in the others, but such evidence is unknown.
	Thus, while it is not impossible that Pipil bears some closer connection to dialects of Veracruz, Tabasco, or elsewhere, the evidence suggests rather its long independence. It is best considered an independent branch of Nahua, not a member of Core Nahua, but having split off from the rest of the family after Pochutec was first separated.

Appendix 2
Varieties of Nahua in Guatemala
	
0. Introduction   
	
	Given the considerable confusion in the literature concerning the varieties of Nahua found in Guatemala and their classification, it is important to clarify matters here. Unfortunately all varieties of Nahua in Guatemala are now extinct and the sources which exist must be interpreted philologically. Nevertheless, Pipil characteristics are sufficiently marked in most cases that it is relatively easy to determine whether traits in Guatemalan varieties have any Pipil connections.
	Of the various forms of Nahua registered in Guatemala, only one turns out to be uncontroversial in its identification. It is the Pipil of the Pacific Coast and piedmont, with extant material from Escuintla, Asuncion Mita, and Comapa (Lehmann 1920, Stoll 1958 (1884)). This material does not differ from Salvadoran Pipil in any of its diagnostic features.
	Other varieties, however, prove not to be Pipil, though often called "Pipil" in the literatures. These are taken up individually.

1.	Alagüilac  
 
	An important question is, what was the Nahua of the Motagua Valley (east central Guatemala) like and what is "Alagüilac"? Brinton (1887) identified "Alaguilac as a kind of Pipil, but this claim is false.	In 1576 Palacio (1881-1907) mentioned a language called "Tlacacebatleca" spoken in "Acacevastlan" (cf. Miles 1957:739), which is taken to be one of the modern Acasaguastlan towns of the middle Motagua Valley. Juarros  (1936(1837):69-71) indicated that in San Cristobal Acasaguastlan the "Alagüilac" language was spoken, while the language of San Agustin Acasaguastlan was "Mejicano" (Mexican, i.e. some variety of Nahua). More direct information was given in a report by Father Jacinto Portillo in 1769:

La lengua materna de este curato (San  Cristóbal Acasaguastlan) en la cabercera es el chortí,  pero que en  los otros poblados y trapiches sólo se habla el alagüilac (Estrada Monroy 1972:29).
		Cf. also, Cortés y Larraz (1958 (1771).1:283).
	
	Brinton's evidence for identifying Alagüilac (Palacio's Tlacacebastleca) as Pipil included a short word list collected by Bromowicz in 1878 (published in Lehmann 1920:1062-7) and four manuscript pages dating from 1610 to 1637 written in Nahuatl and found  in the Parrish archives of San Agustin Acasaguastlan. From these Brinton concluded that "Alagüilac a quite pure form of the Nahuatl" (Brinton 1887:376), closely related to the Pipil of Escuintla (p.377). These data, however, do not warrant such conclusions. The list of words (cf. section 2) was from San Agustin Acasaguastlan, the town identified in the colonial sources as "Mexican" and not Alagüilac in speech. Below it will become clear that this "Mexican" indeed owes its origin to people from central Mexico and has no special connection to Pipil. Futhermore, the manuscript pages were written in Nahuatl, a central Mexican dialect of Nahua. Por example, they contain forms with /tl/, which exists only in dialects originally connected to central Mexico – Pipil has only /t/, no /tl/.  Some cases are:

		ictle		"good"		(CN ye:k-tli)
		tacatl		"man"		(CN tla:ka-tl)
		ciuatl		"woman"	(CN siwa:-tl)
		yeuatl		"he"		(CN ye/wa-tl; cf. Pipil yaha)
		neuatl		"I"		(CN ne/wa-tl; cf. Pipil naha)
		ciuatlque	"matrimonio"	(CN siwa:tlanke)
matlacti-	         "ten"	         (CN ma/tlak-)

	It should be noted that Lehmann (1920:1061) also rejected Brinton's identification, pointing to similar examples.
	There are at least two possible explanations of how the Mexican dialect of Nahua registered in the four manuscript pages could come to be in Acasaguastlan. One has to do with the fact that in New Spain starting in 1570 the official policy was to make Nahuatl the general language and no priest who did not know Nahuatl could take charge of the missions or parishes (Heath 1972:27). This could explain the Nahuatl fround in Acasaguastlan and in many other church records of this period from Guatemala and Chiapas in places where Nahuatl was never the language of the local population. Also many Nahuatl speakers were settled in Guatemala on lands given to the Mexican and Tlaxcalan auxiliaries who helped the Spanish in the Conquest. For example, of the town of Los Esclavos in Central Guatemala Ponce (1873 (1586)) said:
		
LLamanse aquellos indios esclavos, porque realmente lo fueron ed los espanoles ellos y otros muchos,  recien conquistada la tierra, quando no estaban las cosas tan asentadas ni con tan buen orden como agora estan, y un presidente (Alonso López Cerrato) de la Audiencia de Guatemala  leberto mas de diez mil dellos y los  poblo en  diversas partes, y de aquí se quedaron con aquel nombre, hablan la lengua mexicana corrupta, que se llama lengua pipil (Miles 1957:740).

	There were, then, Nahua-speaking Indians settled in various places in Guatemala, Alvarado's allies (cf. Fuentes y Guzman 19323 (1695):240). For example, Salama is a so-called "Pipil" town; the sources clearly demonstrate that there was a population there of Alvarado's "esclavos pipiles" (cf. Pineda 1924-5 (1549):347). The actual identification of Salama Nahua is taken up in section 2 below; it has close affinities with central Mexico, not with Pipil. 
	The so-called "Pipil" of Salama and of Acasaguastlan are nearly identical to each other (see section 2), but very distinct from the Pipil of El Salvador.  Nevertheless, Lehmann was of nearly the same opinion with  respect to the San Agustin Acasaguastlan  material recorded by Bromowicz as was Brinton, but more circumspect:
	
Dagegen ist das Sprachmaterial, das Bromowicz (1878) in San Agustin gesammelt hat, fast einwandsfreies altertumliches Pipil. Es ist moglich, dass dieses alte Idiom fruher Alaguilac genannt wurde, aber nicht feststehend (Lehmann 1920:1061).

	Here Lehmann erred in believing this to be Pipil; it is actually in origin from central Mexico in post-Conquest times, and hence not a good candidate for Alagüilac.
	The post-Conquest origin from central Mexico of Brinton's and Bromowicz's data (and of Salama Nahua) is secured by the linguistic facts (section 2). That Alagüilac was something other than these is also established by the colonial sources. These name as distinct languages in the same context Alagüilac,"Mejicano" (Nahua), and Chorti (or Apay). Since Alagüilac is clearly distinguished from Nahua in these sources, I have raised the possibility that it might have been a kind of Xinca, based on the presence of Xinca place names in the nearby area (Campbell 1972, 1978). For more extensive discussion of the Alagüilac problem and its non-Nahua identity see Campbell 1972, Fowler 1981.

2. Salamá and Acasaguastlan Nahua

	The reinterpretation of Alagüilac as something other than Pipil raises another question: how are the Nahua from the Motagua Valley (San Agustin Acasaguastlan) and Salamá (just north of the Motagua in the Salamá Valley) to be interpreted?
	Like Lehmann (1920:1061) with his probable Pipil identity for Bromowicz's Motagua material, Stoll (1958 (1884):11) had no hesitation in declaring Salamá a "colonia septentrional pipil". He said:

Comparando las voces pipiles de Izalco (El  Salvador) recogidas por Scherer, y las que de la costa de Balsamo  transcribe Squier, con las que obtuve en el interior de la república de Guatemala (Salamá), puede observarse que se diferencian entre sí muy poco (Stoll 1958 (1884):12).

	Quite in contrast, I argue that all Guatemalan Nahua varieties (save the Pacific Coast and piedmont – which was true Pipil), are the results of due to post-Conquest events, due principally to the resettlement of Nahua speakers from elsewhere, non-natives of Guatemala,  and to the use of Nahuatl as the official language in many church and civil records. 
	To begin with, there are documents which declare definitively that the Nahua-speaking population of Salamá is due to post-Conquest resettlement (Pineda 1924-5 (1549):347). Also Lehmann cited an oral tradition that these Nahua speakers were originally from somewhere else:

Nach einer Sage war das Tal von Salama bald nach der Conquista Eigentum einer spanischen Dame von TuxtlaGrande (im Staate Vera Cruz!), die eine grosse Menge mexikanishcer Indianischer-Familien in das Tal gebracht haben soll. Die indiansichen Einwanderer hatten ihre einheimische Tracht von Tuxtla mit sich gefurt und erhalten ... (Lehmann 1920:1062).    
	
	Even if the historical sources were to indicate nothing of these foreign origins, evidence which is purely linguistic is sufficient to show that these Nahua varieties have no close relationship to Pipil, but rather are much more closely connected with central Mexican   Nahua. The source for Salamá Nahua is Stoll (1958 (1884):20-9). There are three short sources for Acasaguastlan (or Motagua) Nahua, Sapper (printed in Lehmann 1920:1062-9), Bromowicz 1876 (Brinton 1887, cf. Lehmann 1920), and Girard (1949:134-5). While these sources are not very exact in their reproduction of the language, they are adequate to show that it shares its diagnostic traits with dialects from Core Nahua, specifically Central Mexico, and not with Pipil, nor with the other southern varieties which are sometimes classified with Pipil (see Appendix 1 and Canger 1980). Some examples are the following.
	1) The -li allomorph of the 'absolutive' after l; Pipil has :
		
		cáli (Stoll, Sapper) "house"
			Pipil  kal
		
		taúli (Sapper), tahule (Girard) "(shelled) corn"
			Pipil tawiyal, tau:l 
		
		míli (Stoll, Sapper) "cornfield"
			Pipil mi:l
		
		chíli (Stoll) "chili pepper"
			Pipil chi:l
		
		xáli (Stoll, Sapper), schali (Bromowicz) "sand"
			Pipil a:xa:l 
		
		táli (Stoll, Sapper), tale (Girard) "land, earth"
			Pipil ta:l
		
		tic-yuvuáli (Stoll), u-yuváli (Sapper) "at night"
			Pipil tayuwa
		
		nia tunáli (Stoll) "today"
			Pipil cf. tu:nal "sun"

	2)  "Hot". Pipil has tutu:ni-k "hot", but the others have tutúngue (Stoll), totonki (Bromowicz) "hot", tutúngui at (Stoll, Sapper) "hot water". Central Mexican Nahua with toto(:)nki lacks the root vowel just as do Salama and Acasaguastlan. The presence of the vowel is shared only be Pipil, Isthmus Nahua, Sierra de Puebla, and La Huasteca. Vowel loss is also seen in cuyúngue "hole" (Stoll, Sapper); cf. Pipil kuyuni "for a hole to form".

	3) The singular pronouns névua "I" and ívua "he/she/it" (Stoll); cf. Pipil naha "I", yaha "he/she/it".
	
	4) "We". Salamá had tevuánte (Stoll) "we", while Pipil has tehemet. The plural pronouns in Central mexican Nahua end in -tin to which the Salamá form corresponds due to the regular changes in which i was lowered to e before n and final n was lost. Pipil corresponds to the -me-t / -me-h ending of certain other peripheral dialects.

	5)  'Reflexives'. Salamá and Acasaguastlan have -nu- for the reflexive prefixes for "me, myself", e.g. ni-nu-páchu "I bend down", ni-nu-quétza "I stand" (Stoll). Pipil and most other varieties have invariant -mu- (or -mo-) with all pronominal persons, e.g. Pipil ni-mu-ketsa "I stand". Thus, Salamá and Acasaguastlan share with Classic Nahuatl and some other  central Mexican dialects variable forms of the 'reflexive', -no- "me,  myself", -mo- "you, yourself", -to- "us, ourselves".
	
	6) The u- 'preterite'. While Salamá and Acasaguastlan have the prefix u- 'preterite' or 'past', Pipil has .  This corresponds to the o:- of Classic Nahuatl and related dialects and the u- so common in colonial texts. It is absent from peripheral varieties of Nahua, including Pipil. Some examples from Stoll are: u-mu-chálu "I stumbled" (said to mean "ich stosse mich"), yálvua u-pánu máti "yesterday it passed (?)" (given as "gestern hatten wir eine kalte Nacht"), yuac u-panu "the night passed/has passed" ("die Nacht ist vorbei"), u-yá táta ti cóhta "father went in (the) woods".

	7)  Negative with a-, ak-. Pipil has the negatives te:, tesu, and inte, with no ready evidence of any negative affixes. However, central Mexican Nahua has amo, as well as a negative prefix a-, ak-. Salamá and Acasaguastlan reflect the central Mexican forms, as seen in these examples: ac-té-no (Stoll), ak-ten (Bromowicz) "nothing" (cf.  Pipil te: datka), ac ni-tá-cua "I don't eat" (cf. Pipil tesu ta-kwa), ac melac "It's not true" ("es ist unwahr") (cf. Pipil tesu kiya), ak-ta kaki (Bromowicz) "deaf" (cf. Pipil tesu takaki "deaf, (he/she) doesn't hear"),  a-cáva (Stoll) "nowhere" ("nirgends") (cf. Pipil te: kanah (?)).

8) Lexical differences.

a) ni-qu-íle (Stoll) "I say"
	Pipil ni-k-ilwia; cf. ilia "to say" of many other dialects.

b) teng (Stoll) "what"
	Pipil ta: (C), tay (SD); cf. ak-ten (Bromowicz) "nothing", from ak- 'negative' + -ten 	"what"; cf. also CN tlein, and Milpa Alta tlaon.

c) unca (Bromowicz) "there"
	Pipil cf. ka uni "over there"; cf. CN on-ka(n).

d) cot (Stoll), kot, kott (Bromowicz) "tree", qóot (Girard) "wood"
	Pipil kwawi-t "tree, wood"

e) tutúl-tit (Stoll, Sapper) "egg"
	Pipil teksis-ti; this form is shared only be Pipil, the Isthmus, and La Huasteca, and 	was cited by Canger (1978) as a trait which links Pipil and the Isthmus. Many central 	dialects have totol-tet or some variant thereof.

f) atémet (Stoll, Sapper) "louse"
	Pipil atime-t

g)  tepítz (Stoll), tepitz (Sapper) "small, little", tepitschi (Bromowicz) 
	Pipil chikitik

h) kusti (Bromowicz), ustig (Sapper) "yellow"
	Pipil tul-ti-k
	
	These features show definitely that Salamá and Acasaguastlan Nahua have their closest relatives, not with Pipil (or any other peripheral variety), but with central Mexican Nahua. Given that the linguistic evidence is so clear cut, involving most of Canger's diagnostic features for the classification of Nahua dialects (cf. Canger 1978, 1983 and Appendix 1), it does not seem very daring to side with the colonial accounts and conclude that these Nahua dialects are recent arrivals in Guatemala, after the Conquest. (See also Campbell 1972, 1978).