The Pipil Language of El Salvador
					
Lyle Campbell
			
Dedication

To my Pipil teachers, helpers, and friends.

Acknowledgements
	
	I owe a debt of gratitute to many for financial, intellectual, and moral support.  I thank the National Science Foundation and the State University of New York Research Foundation for grants which supported my fieldwork and investigations in El Salvador.  I am also grateful to the Instituto de Investigaciones Filologicas of the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico for support which allowed me to complete some of the historical aspects of this study and to write it up.
	I wish to thank Maria Esperanza Aguilar de Smith-Stark for much help with Salvadoran Spanish from the Pipil area.  Claudia Parodi also assisted me with Spanish and in the initial version of this manuscript (which was written in Spanish, but converted to English for this publication).
	Above all, I wish to extend my deep appreciation to my Pipil teachers and consultants, who shared their language with me.  I hope that this work will some day in some way come to be of some benefit to them.

					Abbreviations
	
adj., ADJ		adjective
ABSOL		absolutive
adv.			adverb
applic., APPLIC	applicative
(C)			Cuisnahuat
Car.			Carochi (form from Carochi)
CAUS			causative
cf.			confer, compare, cross-referenc, see
CN			Classical Nahuatl (Colonial Nahuatl)
COND			conditional
conj.			conjugation
DIMIN			diminutive
dir., DIR		directional
imp., IMP		imperative
IMPERF		imperfective  
INCHOAAT		inchoative
incorp.			incorporation, incorporated
INT POSS		intimate possession
i.v.			intransitive verb
loc.			locative
Mol.			Molina (form from Molina)
n.			noun
O			object
obj.			object
perf.			perfect
pl., PL			plural
PN			Proto-Nahua (also called Proto-Aztecan)
poss., POSS		possessive, possession
pres.			present
perf., PERF		perfect
pret., PRET		preterite (simple past)
pron.			pronoun, pronominal
redup.			reduplication
r.v.			reflexive verb
(SD)			Santo Domingo de Guzmán
Sp.			Spanish
S			subject
subj.			subject
t.v.			transitive verb
unspec. obj.		unspecified object
V			verb

Table of Contents
	
Dedication							i
Acknowledgements						ii
Abrreviations						iii
	
Chapter 1
Introduction									1

1.0.	Introduction
1.1.	Social and geographical position					2
1.2.	Classification								2
	1.2.1.	"What's in a name?":  Nahua and Pipil 			5
	1.2.2.	Pipil and the classification of Nahua 				6
		1.2.2.1.	Glottochronology				15
1.3.	Ethnohistory								19
1.4.	Pipil dialectology							24
	
Chapter 2
Phonology									35
	  
2.0.	Introduction								35
2.1.	The phonetic value of the orthographic symbols			35
		
Chart I:  Pipil phonological inventory					37
	2.1.1. 	Phonetic variants (allophones)				37
2.2.	Phonological processes (morphophonemic rules)			37
	
Chapter 3
Lexical categories and Morphology						50
	   
3.0.	Introduction								50
3.1.	Nouns									50
	3.1.1.	Absolutives							50
	3.1.2.	Possession							53
		3.1.2.1.  Plural possession					57
	3.1.3.	Other nominal suffixes					57
		3.1.3.1.  -pan							57
		3.1.3.2.  -tan							58
		3.1.3.3.  -k/-ku	  						58
		3.1.3.4.  -ta(:)l							59
		3.1.3.5.  -ka							59
		3.1.3.6.  -ni							60
		3.1.3.7.  -s (-lis, -wis, -was)		      			60
		3.1.3.8.  -tsin							61
		3.1.3.9.  -pil							62
		3.1.3.10.  -l 'passive nominalization'
	3.1.4.	'Plural'								62
		3.2.  Pronouns							65
	3.2.1.	Independent pronouns						65
	3.2.2.	Pronominal subject affixes					66
		3.2.2.1.	Pronominal copula				66
	3.2.3.	Pronominal object prefixes					67
	3.2.4.	Possessive pronominal prefixes				68
	3.2.5.	Indefinite pronouns						68
3.3.	Articles and demonstratives						68
	3.3.1.	Articles							68
	3.3.2.	Demonstrative pronons and adjectives  			69
	3.3.3.	Demonstrative adverbs					69
3.4.	Quantifiers								70
	3.4.1.	Numerals							70
3.5.  	Locatives								71
	3.5.1.	Independent prepositions					71
	3.5.2.	Relational nouns						71
	3.5.3.	Frozen locatives						72
3.6. 	Adjectives								73
	3.6.1.	-k, -ti-k		  					73
	3.6.2.	-nah								74
	3.6.3.	-a:wa-k/-ak		  					74
	3.6.4.	-tuk								75
	3.6.5.	Other adjectives						75
	3.6.6.	Adjective plurals						76
3.7.	Verbs									76
	3.7.1.	The order of verbal affixes					76
	3.7.2.	Tense and aspect						77
		3.7.2.1	  'Present'						77
		3.7.2.2.  'Preterite' (simple past)				78
		3.7.2.3.  'Perfect'						78
		3.7.2.4.  'Conditional'						79
			3.7.2.4.1.  'Perfect condtionals'			80
		3.7.2.5.  'Future'						80
		3.7.2.6.  'Desiderative'						81
		3.7.2.7.  'Imperfect'						81
			3.7.2.7.1.  -tu-ya 'past perfect'				81
	3.7.3.	Verb classes							82
		3.7.3.1.  Class I ((C)VCV) verbs				82
		3.7.3.2.  Class II verbs ((C)VCCV, (C) Vka, (C)VCu)	84
		3.7.3.3.  Class III (-ia, -ua)		  			84
		3.7.3.4.  Class IV (-CVh alternating with -CVh) 		87
	3.7.4.	Pronominal affixes with verbs				87
		3.7.4.1.  'Reflexive' (mu-)					87
		3.7.4.2.  ta- 'unspecified object'				89
			3.7.4.2.1.  Non-productive and special ta- forms  	90
			3.7.4.2.2.  Reduplication of ta-			91
.			3.7.4.2.3.  ta- with nouns derived from transitive
					verbs					91
			3.7.4.2.4.  Adjectives with ta-				92
		3.7.4.3.  te:- 'someone'						92
	3.7.5.	Reduplication in verbs					93
	3.7.6.	Other verb prefixes						94
		3.7.6.1.  (w)al- 'directional'					94
		3.7.6.2.  -el- 'mentation/inside'				95
		3.7.6.3.  -ah- 'buccal'						95
		3.7.6.4.  -ih- 'superficial'					95
	3.7.7.	Order of verb prefixes when (w)al or -el- is present		96
	3.7.8.	Verb moods and voices					96
		3.7.8.1.  'Imperative'/'Optative'/'Subjunctive' 			97
		3.7.8.2.  'Causatives'						98
		3.7.8.3.  'Inchoatives'						99
			3.7.8.3.1.  'Inchoatives' with -ua/-wi/-wa		99
			3.7.8.3.2.  'Inchoatives' of "perception" or
					"sensation" (-ya)			101
			3.7.8.3.3.  -ti "to become"				102
		3.7.8.4. 'Passives' (-l, -lu, -lw, and -ua)    			102
		3.7.8.5.  'Applicatives'						103
		3.7.8.6.  'Diffusion'						103
		3.7.8.7.  'Repetitives' of 'diffusion' verbs (-ka 'intransitives, 
				-tsa 'transitives')	 			104
	3.7.9.	Verb stems							105
		3.7.9.1.  Suppletion						105
		3.7.9.2.  Reduplication					108
		3.7.9.1.  Incorporation						108
			3.7.10.1.  Adjective incorporation			108
			3.7.10.2.  Instrumental noun incorporation		109
			3.7.10.3.  Object incorporation			109
3.8.	Particles and clitics							114
	3.8.1.  -ya/-a "already, now"		  				114
	3.8.2.	katka								115
	3.8.3.	ma:, maka 'imperative', 'optative', 'subjunctive'		116
3.9.	Conjunctions								117
3.10.  	Adverbs								118
3.11.  	Compounds								119
	3.11.1.	 Noun compounds						119
	3.11.2.  Verb compounds						122
	3.11.3.  Compound adjectives						124

Chapter 4
Syntax										125
	  
4.0.	Introduction								125
4.1.	Word order								125
	4.1.1.  Word order conclusions					133
	4.1.2.	Pronominal indirect objects					133
4.2.	"to be"									134
	4.2.1.  Pronominal copula						134
	4.2.2.  Ø-copula							135
	4.2.3.  Locative nemi							135
	4.2.4.  'Existential' nemi						136
	4.2.5.  Other "to be" cases						136
		4.2.5.1.  Emphatic states					136
		4.2.5.2.  "To be" questions					136
		4.2.5.3.  Irregular "to be" forms				136
4.3.	Non-distinct arguments						137
4.4.	Questions								138
	4.4.1.  Yes-no questions						138
	4.4.2.  Wh-questions							138
4.5.	Imperatives								139
	4.5.1.  Imperative and hortatory sentences				139
	4.5.2.  Negative imperatives						140
4.6.  Possession								141
	4.6.1.  Pronominal possession						141
	4.6.2.  Nominal possession						141
	4.6.3.  pal periphrastic possession					142
	4.6.4.  piya "to have"							142
	4.6.5.  Possessive 'relational noun'					143
4.7.  	Locatives (see 3.5)							143
4.8.	Demonstratives (see 3.3)						143
4.9.	Adjective in larger constructions					143
4.10.	Comparatives								145
4.11.	Coordination								145
	4.11.1.  Wan "and"							145
	4.11.2.	 Pero, pe:roh "but"		  				147
	4.11.3.	 Ni, ni ke "(neither) nor"; mas bien "rather"	 		148
	4.11.4.  Sino "but (not)"						148
	4.11.5.	 Ma "but"							149
	4.11.6.	 Gapping							149
4.12.	Complement clauses							150
	4.12.1.	 ka(h)								150
	4.12.2.	 Tay/ta:		  					151
	4.12.3.  Ø								152
4.13.	Cleft sentences							152
4.14.	Relative clauses							153
	4.14.1.  Relativized subjects						153
	4.14.2.	 Relativized objects						154
4.15.	Adverbial clauses							154
	4.15.1.	 Locative clauses						154 
	4.15.2.	 Time clauses							155
	4.15.3.	 Manner clauses						156
	4.15.4.	 Reason clauses						157
	4.15.5.	 Purpose clauses (pal)						158
4.16.	Continional sentences							159
4.17.	Auxiliaries								160
	4.17.1.	 Nemi 'progressive'						161
	4.17.2.	 Yawi 'periphrastic future'					161
	4.17.3.	 Yawi "to go" auxiliary					163
	4.17.4.	 weli "to be able, can"						163
	4.17.5.	 pe:wa "to begin, start"					165
4.18.	Complex verb phrases							165
	4.18.1.	 Wi:ts + verb							165
	4.18.2.	 Ki:sa + verb							165
	4.18.3.	 -neki + verb							166
	4.18.4.	 Other verb + verb forms (Equi-NP Delition)			166
4.19.	-chiwa + Spanish infinitive						167
Chapter 5
Pipil-Spanish-English dictionary						169
		
5.0.	Introduction								521
	
Chapter 6		
Spanish-Pipil dictionary							521
		
6.0.	Introduction								521
	
Chapter 7		
Texts										786
		
7.0. 	Introduction

Los Huracaneros (H)								787
The Hurricaners (English version)						791
		
El Arco (A)									783
The Arch (English version)							786
		
La Siguanaba (S)								798
The  Siguanaba  (English  version)						803
		
El Sipitillo (Sip)								805
The Sipitillo (English version)						805
		
História de un Rey (R)							806
The Story of a King (English version)					811
		
El Nanahuatzin (N)								813
The Nanahuatzin (English version)						826

Appendix 1	 Other varieties of Nahua sometimes called "Pipil"		830
	
Appendix 2	 Varieties of Nahua in Guatemala				843
	
Bibliography									850